How Decent Work Affects Affective Commitment Among Chinese Employees: The Roles of Psychological Safety and Labor Relations Climate

Abstract

This two-study research evaluates the validity of the decent work scale (DWS) developed by Duffy et al. (2017) in the United States and the effect of decent work on affective commitment among Chinese employees. Study 1 aims to validate the DWS and examine the predictability of decent work for psychological safety and affective commitment. Drawing from a sample of 307 full-time employees (149 females and 158 males), Study 1 reveals that the bifactor model of the DWS has valid application in the Chinese context, and that decent work is positively related to psychological safety and affective commitment. Study 2 seeks to explore the relationship between decent work and affective commitment, the underlying mechanism, and the boundary condition. With a new sample of 568 full-time employees (268 females and 300 males) collected at two time points, Study 2 demonstrates that decent work is directly and indirectly related to employee affective commitment through the mediation of psychological safety; this indirect relationship is moderated by labor relations climate. This research extends decent work research and psychology of working theory in relation to the DWS validation and predictability for employee workplace attitudes, psychological process, and boundary conditions in a non-Western context.

Keywords

affective commitment China decent work labor relations climate psychological safety

Work is a fundamental part of humanity (Gini, 2013), and the concept of decent work has attracted increasing scholarly interest since it was introduced by the International Labour Organization (ILO, 1999) in 1999 (see the 2019 special issue of Journal of Vocational Behavior, dedicated to cross-cultural examinations of decent work). Duffy et al. (2017) developed the decent work scale (DWS) in 2017 to measure and understand decent work at the individual level among employees in the United States (US). Since then, the DWS has been validated in several cross-cultural settings, including Brazil (Ribeiro et al., 2019), France (Vignoli et al., 2020), Italy (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2019), Portugal (Ferreira et al., 2019), Turkey (Buyukgoze-Kavas & Autin, 2019; Işik et al., 2019), South Korea (Nam & Kim, 2019), Togo (Atitsogbe et al., 2020), Switzerland (Masdonati et al., 2019), and the United Kingdom (Dodd et al., 2019).

Research on decent work at the individual level has mainly been conducted in the field of vocational psychology and has been centered on testing psychology of working theory (PWT) in terms of predictors and consequences of attaining decent work. PWT argues that securing decent work fulfills the human needs of survival, social connection, and self-determination, and that satisfying those needs promotes employee wellbeing and work fulfillment (Blustein, 2001; Duffy et al., 2016). Extant empirical studies have demonstrated that decent work has a positive association with job satisfaction (Wang et al., 2019), mental health, life satisfaction, and wellbeing (e.g., Di Fabio & Kenny, 2019; Duffy et al., 2019; Ferreira et al., 2019; Işık et al., 2019; Masdonati et al., 2019; Kozan et al., 2019), person−organization fit (Işık et al., 2019), and access to meaningful work (Dodd et al., 2019; Duffy et al., 2017). Conversely, decent work has a negative relationship with intention to quit (Dodd et al., 2019; Duffy et al., 2017; Wang et al., 2019) and emotional exhaustion (Ferreira et al., 2019).

However, the existing research on employee attitudinal and behavioral outcomes of decent work is limited because decent work is an emerging concept, and research on this topic is still in its infancy (Cooke et al., 2019). Therefore, researchers have called for more studies on decent work to be conducted from the perspective of employees’ work attitudes and behavior (e.g., Cooke et al., 2019). Moreover, although research in the Chinese context (e.g., Ding & Zhou, 2013; Qing et al., 2015; Xu & Liu, 2017) has begun to test the validity of the DWS and develop the Chinese version of measurement of decent work, such research has not yet undertaken rigorous procedures to develop and validate a psychological scale. Thus, it is important to further test the construct validity of the DWS in non-Western contexts, such as China, to enrich decent work research.

This paper examines the applicability of the DWS, the relationship between decent work and employee affective commitment, and the mediation of psychological safety among Chinese employees. Affective commitment refers to an individual’s positive emotional attachment to the organization (Meyer et al., 2002). Employees make their decisions to remain in an organization because of emotional attachment, which is positively related to their in-role and extra-role work performance (Meyer et al., 2002). Psychological safety refers to the freedom of individuals to express their true self, ideas, and beliefs without fear of negative consequences for their self-image or career prospects (Kark & Carmeli, 2009). The construct of psychological safety is different from physical and interpersonal safety. Physical safety refers to work safety and the absence of physical abuse, while interpersonal safety refers to the nonexistence of mental or emotional abuse (i.e., verbal and psychological abuse). Physical and interpersonal safety constitutes safe working conditions, which are an integral part of decent work (Duffy et al., 2016; ILO, 2016). The paper also explores the boundary effect of the labor relations climate—that is, the quality of the relationship between the workers and management within the organization (Katz et al., 1983)—on the relationship between decent work and affective commitment. Two studies were conducted to achieve the research objectives. Study 1 tested the psychometric and predictive validity of the DWS on a sample of 307 full-time Chinese employees. Building upon Study 1, Study 2 explored the relationship of decent work with employee affective commitment, the underlying mechanism, and the boundary condition with a new sample of 568 employees.

This paper contributes to the decent work literature in several ways. First, the Chinese version of DWS has yet to be rigorously validated and previous studies on decent work and PWT have generally been conducted in Western contexts, which have individualistic cultures different from the Chinese in-group collectivistic culture (Duffy et al., 2016). Thus, the cross-cultural validity of the DWS and PWT requires further empirical examination, particularly in non-Western contexts (Wang et al., 2019). China’s current population is over 1.4 billion and ranks first in the world. There are 56 officially recognized ethnic groups, among which Han is the largest. The overall education level is high, and Chinese people have a strong work ethic. Working conditions in China have undergone a radical transformation since the economic reform in 1978. There is great income disparity in China, as indicated by the country’s high Gini index (Jin, 2016). Employment is generally precarious, work hours are long, workplace safety is lacking, and unions are not independent of enterprise management and the Chinese government (Howell & Pringle, 2019). Moreover, unlike in advanced Western economies, China has a hukou (residence registration) system, which differentiates citizens’ rights and access to resources according to birthplace; 60.8% of the population have urban hukous (Jin, 2016). Scholars have just begun to examine the work experiences of Chinese employees. For example, Wang et al. (2019) explored the effect of decent work on job satisfaction and the intention to quit among Chinese urban workers. However, no study in the Chinese context has explored employee work attitudinal outcomes of decent work. It has been suggested that a contextually informed approach should be applied to investigate the outcomes of employee work experiences (Duffy et al., 2016; Wang et al., 2019). Hence, research in the Chinese context is necessary to ascertain the applicability of the DWS and to test and extend PWT by developing new understandings of employee work experiences and work attitudinal consequences of decent work in the Chinese context.

Second, PWT is a complex theory that offers 32 propositions about antecedents and consequences of decent work. However, as a new theory, none of its propositions relate to employee organizational attitudinal outcomes of decent work and their underlying mechanisms. This is considered an important new research avenue (Cooke et al., 2019). Smith et al. (2020) also highlighted the need to explore additional constructs to refine PWT. The predictor and employee mental and psychological consequences portions of the PWT model were built on numerous counseling psychology and sociology theories (Duffy et al., 2016). When examining employee workplace outcomes that are currently beyond the scope of PWT, additional industrial and organizational (I-O) psychology theories may be drawn on for theorization. From different perspectives, social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1985) and social exchange theory (Blau, 1964) explain how perceived organizational support breeds employee organizational commitment. Thus, social identity theory and social exchange theory are effective in establishing the direct and indirect relationships between decent work and employee affective commitment through the mediation of psychological safety. Integrating social identity theory and social exchange theory into the research model thereby enriches PWT on employee organizational attitudinal outcomes of decent work and the underlying mechanisms.

Third, while several propositions of PWT relate to the moderation of the psychological and financial variables in the relationships between decent work and contextual factors, work volition, and career adaptability (Duffy et al., 2016), PWT does not address the moderating variables that change the direction and strength of the effects of decent work on employee organizational attitudinal outcomes. Thus, this paper explores the moderating effect of the labor relations climate on the indirect relationship between decent work and affective commitment through the mediation of psychological safety. Consequently, this paper also extends PWT by improving understandings of the boundary conditions that can change the effect strength of decent work on employee organizational workplace outcomes. Thus, it answers the recent call for research to explore the role of workplace climate in PWT (England et al., 2020).

Theoretical Background

Decent Work and Psychology of Working Theory

Decent work is defined by the ILO (2016) as “entailing opportunities for productive work with fair income, security in the workplace and social protection for families, better prospects for personal development and social integration, freedom for people to express their concerns, organise and participate in the decisions that affect their lives and equality of opportunities and treatment for all women and men” (p. 1). Some scholars have argued that this macro-level (e.g., organizational) definition of decent work fails to reflect how individuals experience or make meaning of their work lives (Işık et al., 2019). To address this, Duffy et al. (2016) extended the ILO definition by reconceptualizing the multidimensionality of decent work at the individual level. They identified five dimensions:

(1) physically and interpersonally safe working conditions (e.g., absence of physical, mental or emotional abuse), (2) hours that allow for free time and adequate rest, (3) organizational values that complement family and social values, (4) adequate compensation, and (5) access to adequate health care. (p. 130)

The individual-level conceptualization of decent work captures the individual’s core inner experience of work and the mental and psychological consequences of the work for the individual (Duffy et al., 2016). Developed by Duffy et al. (2016) and Blustein (2001), PWT advances the extant vocational research by addressing the roles that external contexts play in career selection and fulfillment. The PWT model is a comprehensive theoretical framework comprising core tenets, including contextual and personal antecedents—the variables (e.g., proactive personality, social support, and critical consciousness)—that moderate their relationships, and the psychological outcomes of decent work. It proposes that contextual barriers affect individuals’ access to decent work through personal psychological potency, and that decent work results in work fulfillment and wellbeing by satisfying basic needs. There is growing research interest in testing the propositions of PWT.

Prior studies have provided strong empirical support for PWT in relation to socioeconomic antecedents, paths, and boundary factors in the predictor portion of the model, and psychological and mental outcomes of people securing decent work (e.g., Ferraro et al., 2018; Kozan et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2019). The present research is grounded in PWT’s premise that securing decent work helps meet individuals’ psychological needs, specifically demonstrating the positive effect of decent work on psychological safety. The paper also extends PWT by examining work attitudinal outcomes of decent work, the underlying mechanisms, and the boundary condition of this outcome.

Decent Work and Affective Commitment

Research has identified a wide range of antecedents of affective commitment. For example, perceived organizational support and respect, congruence between individual and organizational values, and organizational reputation are considered powerful predictors of affective commitment (see the meta-analysis of Farooq et al., 2014; Meyer et al., 2002). Duffy et al.’s (2017) definition of decent work, which includes safe workplace conditions, free time, adequate time off, value congruence, competitive compensation, and the provision of health care, reflects wellbeing-oriented human resource management (HRM) practices designed to provide employees with career development opportunities and decent employment conditions (Cooper et al., 2019). Decent work means that employees obtain support from the organization, and that the organization treats employees in a caring, kind, benevolent, and respectful manner (Duffy et al., 2017). Employees’ positive evaluation of their organization can enhance their emotional attachment to the organization, as well as their self-perceived status within the organization (Tyler & Blader, 2003). Moreover, organizations that provide decent work for employees may gain external prestige, which also boosts employees’ pride in and emotional attachment to the organization (Farooq et al., 2014).

Unlike continuance (need) and normative (obligation) commitment, affective commitment indicates that employees wish to remain with the organization (Meyer et al., 2002). I-O psychology theories, for example, social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1985) and social exchange theory (Blau, 1964), can be drawn on to explain the link between decent work and affective commitment. From the social identity perspective, employees are inclined to become emotionally attached to a work organization that is internally supportive and externally reputable. This attachment enhances employees’ self-esteem and reduces feelings of uncertainty about sense of self. From the social exchange perspective, employees are inclined to reciprocate organizational support and trust by exhibiting positive work attitudes (i.e., affective commitment). Consequently, decent work is likely to be directly related to employee affective commitment. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 1. Decent work is positively related to employee affective commitment.

Mediation of Psychological Safety

Securing decent work is positively related to psychological safety because it satisfies the main conditions of psychological safety (e.g., perceived freedom, inclusion, trust, and respect, as well as feeling safe to learn, work, and challenge the status quo without fear; Kark & Carmeli, 2009). Decent work meets employees’ basic survival needs, such as the need for physical safety, job security, and decent wages (Duffy et al., 2016). Satisfying survival needs enables people to obtain financial freedom, thereby reducing worries and uncertainty. Decent work also meets social connection needs by ensuring that help is available in the workplace and beyond (Duffy et al., 2016). This social connection boosts employees’ confidence and interpersonal trust. Securing decent work also reduces perceived uncertainty about employment and work conditions because in a decent work environment, employers are inclined to make a long-term investment in employees to establish more stable and less risky employment relationships (Duffy et al., 2017).

Reduced uncertainty and freedom from interpersonal abuse in the work environment increases employees’ confidence such that they have freedom to express their true self, ideas, and beliefs without fear of embarrassment or punishment (Kark & Carmeli, 2009). Moreover, decent work satisfies employees’ deep-seated psychological needs, such as the need for self-determination, which is achieved when organizations promote respect, trust, and recognition in the workplace (Alzola, 2018; Duffy et al., 2016, 2017). Individuals whose work environment fits well with their interests and values tend to have the confidence to express themselves. In contrast, employees working in an environment characterized by oppression, marginalization, and exploitation feel greater uncertainty and fear about expressing their true selves, ideas, and beliefs (Duffy et al., 2017). Therefore, in line with the PWT propositions that securing decent work has positive psychological outcomes (Duffy et al., 2016), we predict that decent work is positively related to employee psychological safety.

A psychologically safe organization provides support to its employees. This support can be reflected in a good work−life balance, adequate financial compensation, and protection of employee safety. Employees in a psychologically safe work organization share common values, experience interpersonal trust, and feel confident to take risks in interpersonal relationships (Bouraoui et al., 2019; Edmondson et al., 2016). When employees have positive relationships with their organizations and colleagues, they may take less self-protective precautions when interacting with others and be more willing to help others and cooperate with them (Edmondson et al., 2016). Fear and uncertainty in psychologically unsafe environments may hinder employees from building an emotional attachment to the organization (Meyer et al., 2002). Therefore, in line with social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1985) and social exchange theory (Blau, 1964), employees with a high level of psychological safety tend to develop an emotional attachment to and identification with their organization. Empirical research in China has already found that psychological safety is positively related to affective commitment (Chen et al., 2014). Thus, we also argue that psychological safety is positively associated with affective commitment among Chinese employees. Although the mediating role of psychological safety in the relationship between decent work and affective commitment has not been examined before, several studies have reported that psychological safety is a mediator between a supportive organizational environment and individual and teamwork outcomes (e.g., Chen et al., 2014; Kirk-Brown & Van Dijk, 2016; Miao et al., 2019; Singh et al., 2018). On the basis of this discussion, we predict that psychological safety is an important underlying mechanism through which decent work is positively related to employee affective commitment. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 2. Psychological safety mediates the relationship between decent work and employee affective commitment.

Moderation of Labor Relations Climate

Pyman et al. (2010) defined the labor relations climate as “the atmosphere, norms, attitudes, and behaviors reflecting and underpinning how workers, unions, and managers interact collectively with each other in the workplace, which in turn, affects workplace outcomes” (p. 463). The All-China Federation of Trade Unions is not independent of the Chinese government, and trade unions at the firm level are part of enterprise management. Hence, trade unions in China are often called sham trade unions because they are not able to effectively represent workers when dealing with labor relations and adequately protect workers’ rights and interests in the workplace (Chan & Snape, 2013; Howell & Pringle, 2019). It has been suggested that the labor relations climate in China may be better defined as the degree to which the relationship between employees and employers remains cooperative, mutually trusting, and either respectful or conflictual (e.g., Li & Zhou, 2015; Xi et al., 2017). Profound changes have taken place in labor relations in China since its economic reform in the late 1970s. The contradiction and conflicts of interest between employees and employers have become increasingly fierce because of the transformation from a command economy to a market economy (Hui & Chan, 2015). To maintain social stability, the Chinese government emphasizes the collective negotiation system in building labor relations in the workplace (Yao & Zhong, 2013). Hence, labor relations may vary significantly between firms because of different workplace partnerships. A labor relations climate indicates the extent to which employees (or their representatives, unions) and employers have unequal power in determining employment conditions (Kersley et al., 2006; Li & Zhou, 2015; Snape & Redman, 2012). It determines, to a great extent, whether a decent work status is sustainable. Consequently, the labor relations climate will determine the strength of the impact of decent work on employee work outcomes. In a hostile labor relations climate, employees do not have confidence in maintaining a decent work status. In a harmonious labor relations climate, even in the absence of independent unions, employees are valued and supported by employers and are involved in decision-making relating to work hours, work conditions, and pay (Pohler & Luchak, 2015). As a result, the impact of decent work on psychological safety will be weaker in a hostile labor relations climate than in a harmonious labor relations climate. As Clarke et al. (2007) suggested, the relational characteristics of employment better explain the social and psychological outcomes of precarious employment. Building upon the extant literature, we propose that labor relations climate will alter the strength of the relationship between decent work and psychological safety.

Because Hypothesis 2 proposes that psychological safety mediates the relationship between decent work and affective commitment, combining Hypothesis 2 with the discussion on labor relations climate establishes a moderated mediation model. Specifically, labor relations climate moderates the indirect effect of decent work on affective commitment through the mediation of psychological safety. Thus, we propose the following hypothesis:

Hypothesis 3. Labor relations climate moderates the indirect effect of decent work on affective commitment through the mediation of psychological safety such that when the level of labor relations climate is higher, the indirect effect is stronger than when the level is lower.

Study 1

The goals of Study 1 were to examine the factor structural validity and predictability of the DWS (Duffy et al., 2017) for employee organizational attitudinal outcomes in the Chinese context. To achieve the research goals, we performed confirmatory factor analyses on the DWS and regression analyses on the relationships between decent work and psychological safety and affective commitment.

Method

Participants and Procedure

The data for Study 1 were collected through Questionnaire Star (Wen Juan Xing [WJX], www.wjx.cn) between November 2019 and June 2020. WJX is a specialized and reliable online survey platform (Wang et al., 2019) used by many researchers in China to collect data for their studies. We promoted the project on WJX by articulating the research purposes and emphasizing the anonymity and confidentiality of the study. A link to the online questionnaire was provided. People who were unemployed at the time of the research were asked not to participate in the survey. We offered participants red envelopes containing between RMB5 and 50 (USD0.08 and USD8.00, respectively) for compensation.

WJX requires participants to respond to all questions to submit the questionnaires. We finally received 307 full-time employees’ complete and valid questionnaires. Of the sample, 51.5% of the participants were male, 28.0% held a junior college diploma or a high school degree; 45.9% held a bachelor’s degree, and 26.1% held a postgraduate degree. Participants were aged 21–52 years (M = 30.64, SD = 4.43), with an average organizational tenure of 4.96 years (SD = 3.23). Participants’ average monthly income was RMB7, 110.75 (USD1,088; SD = RMB2,799.93 [USD428.37]); and 60.6% earned less than the average monthly income. In addition, 44.3% of participants were employed in state-owned enterprises.

Measures

The questionnaires were developed in English and translated into Chinese, and then back-translated to ensure translation accuracy (Brislin, 1980). Six-point Likert scales were used for all measures, ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 6 = strongly agree, to prevent respondents from selecting the intermediate option within the scale without considering their true feeling and attitudes (Cheng et al., 2003).

Decent work

The original DWS developed in the US has a five-factor bifactor structure (Duffy et al., 2017). This scale includes 15 items equally split into five dimensions: (1) safe working conditions (e.g., “I feel emotionally safe interacting with people at work”); (2) access to healthcare (e.g., “I receive good healthcare benefits from my job”); (3) adequate compensation (e.g., “I am adequately financially rewarded for my work”); (4) free time and rest (e.g., “I have free time during the work week”); and (5) complementary values (e.g., “The values of my organization match my family values”). Since its development, the applicability of the DWS has been tested in several countries. Overall, past studies have supported the bifactor structure, and the US version of the DWS is generally applicable in cross-cultural settings. However, the need for modifying measuring items has emerged in some national contexts. For example, “I am rewarded adequately for my work” and “I have free time during the work week” were removed because of low reliability in Togo (Atitsogbe et al., 2020). Physically safe working environment and stress-related items were added to the Swiss version of the DWS (Masdonati et al., 2019). The items related to access to healthcare needed modification in Brazil, Italy, Portugal, South Korea, and Switzerland because of different healthcare systems (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2019; Ferreira et al., 2019; Masdonati et al., 2019; Nam & Kim, 2019; Ribeiro et al., 2019). Specifically, in the Italian and Swiss versions of the DWS, “employer” was replaced with “country/government,” and in the South Korean context, “employer” was removed from all three healthcare items. In the Portuguese context, “I get good healthcare benefits from my job” of the original scale was replaced with “I get a good healthcare system from my job.” In the UK, the healthcare items were changed to reflect whether employers provide better healthcare than does the national healthcare system (Dodd et al., 2019).

In China, employing organizations are supposed to pay for employees’ health insurance (employees also contribute a small portion), which covers most costs of healthcare services delivered by public or private healthcare providers. The Chinese government pays for unemployed people’s health insurance. Considerable differences exist in healthcare benefits among full-time employees, part-time employees, and the unemployed. Therefore, in the Chinese version of the DWS, we used the following items for the healthcare dimension: “My employer provides good healthcare insurance,” “I have a good healthcare plan,” and “My country provides acceptable healthcare options.”

Following the recommendation of Brislin (1980), the DWS was submitted to the translation and back-translation procedure. Two authors of this paper who have backgrounds in counseling psychology translated the English version into Chinese. Another two bilingual researchers, who are not authors of this paper, back-translated the Chinese version into English. A comparison of the back-translated version and the original version of the DWS was conducted to examine potential discrepancies. Differences were solved through discussion. All translators of the scale and 10 MBA students who were also full-time employees pilot tested the scale. Some expressions were changed based on their feedback. In the scale development study, Cronbach’s α for the general factor was .86, and for subscales was between .79 and .97 (Duffy et al., 2017). Wang et al. (2019) did not report internal consistency reliability for subscales. In their study, Cronbach’s alpha for the general factor was .84; in the current study, Cronbach’s α for the total scale was .87, and for subscales was .86 (safe working conditions), .82 (access to healthcare), .82 (adequate compensation), .69 (free time and rest), and .87 (complementary values).

Psychological safety

Psychological safety was measured using three items developed by Edmondson (1999): (1) “It is difficult to ask other members of this team for help” (reverse coded); (2) “Working with members of this team, my unique skills and talents are valued and utilized”; and (3) “If you make a mistake on this team, it is often held against you” (reverse coded). The psychological safety scale showed excellent international reliability in previous studies with Chinese samples (e.g., α was .85 in Peng et al., 2019). Given that we were collecting data on organizations rather than teams, we replaced “team” with “organization” in our questionnaire. The internal reliability for this scale in the current study was .78.

Affective commitment

Affective commitment was measured using the six items developed by Meyer et al. (1993). Sample items include “I would not leave my organization right now because I have a sense of obligation to the people in it” and “I owe a great deal to my organization.” This scale exhibited good internal consistency in previous studies (e.g., α was .92 in Tang & Vandenberghe, 2020). Internal reliability for this scale in the current study was .91.

Control variables

Demographic variables, including gender, education, and age, are related to securing jobs (Dodd et al., 2019). Therefore, we controlled for these three variables in the main analyses. Gender was coded as 1 = male and 0 = female. Education was coded as 1 = high school degree or less, 2 = college degree, 3 = bachelor’s degree, and 4 = master’s degree or higher. Employment tenure was also controlled for because it is related to affective commitment (Rhoades et al., 2001). Employee monthly income was also controlled for because it can be considered a proxy for social class, which can predict access to decent work (e.g., Wang et al., 2019). Age, employment tenure, and monthly income were continuous variables.

Results

The means, standard deviations, and correlations of the study variables are presented in Table 1. The mean scores of the total scale and the five subscales for decent work among Chinese employees were lower than in other countries—for example, Brazil (Ribeiro et al., 2019), Portugal (Ferreira et al., 2019), Switzerland (Masdonati et al., 2019), Turkey (Buyukgoze-Kavas & Autin, 2019), and the US (Duffy et al., 2017).

Table 1.

Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations of the Decent Work Scales, Total Scale, and Validity Scales (Study 1, n = 307).

	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
1. Decent work scale	—
2. Safe working conditions	.69**	—
3. Access to healthcare	.78**	.45**	—
4. Adequate compensation	.64**	.23**	.38**	—
5. Free time and rest	.69**	.27**	.45**	.38**	—
6. Complementary values	.70**	.38**	.46**	.30**	.39**	—
7. Psychological safety	.38**	.25**	.28**	.24**	.29**	.26**	—
8. Affective commitment	.40**	.34**	.28**	.20**	.32**	.25**	.35**	—
M	3.66	3.74	3.73	3.61	3.49	3.74	3.87	3.73
SD	.63	1.03	.92	.88	.83	.81	.74	.87

*p < .05, ∗∗p < .01.

To assuage concerns about whether psychological safety is distinctive from the safe dimension of decent work, we first used half of the data (154 participants) to run exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with SPSS 24 on these two constructs. The results of the EFA with varimax rotation revealed that two factors exceeded eigenvalue 1. Psychological safety and the safety dimension of decent work explained 34.61% and 38.58% of the total variance, respectively. Next, we ran CFA on the other half of the data (153 participants) with Mplus 7.40. The results showed that the two-factor model fitted the data well (χ²(8) = 2.03, CFI = .98, TLI = .96, RMSEA = .06) and fitted better than did the one-factor model (χ²[9] = 14.15, CFI = .65, TLI = .42, RMSEA = .29; Δχ²(1) = 111.10, p < .01, ΔCFI = .33, ΔRMSEA = .21). These results indicated that psychological safety and the safe conditions dimension of decent work are distinctive constructs.

Three models including the correlational model (the five subscales were correlated), the higher-order model (the general decent work factor subsuming the five subscale factors), and the bifactor model (all items loaded onto a general decent work factor and five uncorrelated factors) were run using Mplus 7.40 with maximum likelihood estimation to determine the factor structure of the DWS. The results showed that the bifactor model had the best fit to the data (χ²[75] = 134.24, CFI = .97, TLI = .96, RMSEA = .05), and fit the data better than did the higher-order model (χ²[85] = 148.49, CFI = .96, TLI = .95, RMSEA = .05, Δχ² = 14.25, p > .01, ΔCFI = .01, ΔRMSEA = .00) and the correlational model (χ²[80] = 148.23, CFI = .97, TLI = .96, RMSEA = .05, Δχ² = 13.99, p < .05, ΔCFI = .00, ΔRMSEA = .00).

Following the advice of Rodriguez et al. (2016), we calculated the omega (ω), omega hierarchical (ω _H ), and explained common variance (ECV), which are important for evaluating the relative contributions of the general factor and subscales to the total score in assessing the reliability of a bifactor model; ω measures the extent of variance in a scale caused by common variance. The ω for the total scale was .94, indicating that 94% of the total score variance was attributed to both the general factor and the five specific factors, while the remaining 6% was attributable to error. The ω for the five specific factors ranged from .75 to .91, indicating good reliability; ω _H measures the extent of variance in a scale’s total score contributed by the general factor. The value of ω _H for the total decent work was .76, lower than the cutoff point .80, and the values of ω _H for the five subscales ranged from .20 to .60, showing a multidimensional structure of the scale (Rodriguez et al., 2016). Moreover, 22.3% of the ECV was attributed to the general factor, while the rest of the variance was because of the five specific factors.

Multigroup invariance analyses were conducted on the bifactor model to compare the differences across gender, income, and enterprise ownership (privately-owned enterprises vs state-owned enterprises). Two subgroups were created on the basis of the mean score of participants’ reported monthly income. Following Vandenberg and Lance’s (2000) recommendation, we tested measurement invariance and configural, metric, and scalar models across gender, income, and enterprise ownership. As Table 2 demonstrates, the changes in the CFI and RMSEA were smaller than the 0.05 rule of thumb (Bagozzi & Yi, 1990); the proposed factor structure of the DWS was invariant across groups.

Table 2.

Results of the Invariance Tests (Study 1, n = 307).

Model	χ²	df	CFI	TLI	RMSEA
Gender
M₀ (configural)	223.90	150	.96	.95	.04
M₁ (metric)	248.80	174	.96	.96	.04
M₂ (scalar)	281.19	189	.96	.95	.04
Income
M₀ (configural)	201.48	150	.97	.96	.03
M₁ (metric)	224.55	174	.98	.97	.03
M₂ (scalar)	243.56	189	.97	.97	.03
Enterprise ownership
M₀ (configural)	232.83	150	.96	.94	.04
M₁ (metric)	253.04	174	.96	.95	.04
M₂ (scalar)	270.54	189	.96	.96	.04

Stepwise hierarchical analyses (Cohen et al., 2013) were conducted to examine how well the total scale and five subdimensions of decent work predicted psychological safety and affective commitment, respectively. As presented in Table 3, when the general factor and five subscales were all entered into the equations, the general decent work was significantly related to psychological safety (B = .45, p < .01) and affective commitment (B = .54, p < .01). Safe working conditions, and free time and rest, were significantly related to psychological safety (B = .10, p < .05; B = .12, p < .05) and affective commitment (B = .17, p < .01; B = .20, p < .01). Together, the general factor and subdimensions of the DWS explained 16% and 20% of the variance in psychological safety and affective commitment, respectively.

Table 3.

Results of Stepwise Hierarchical Regression Analyses of Decent Work and Subscales Predicting Psychological Safety and Affective Commitment (Study 1, n = 307).

Variables	Psychological Safety						Affective Commitment
Variables	B	B	B	B	B	B	B	B	B	B	B	B
Gender	–.05	–.08	–.09	–.07	–.04	–.04	–.11	–.06	–.07	–.06	–.02	–.01
Age	–.00	–.01	–.01	–.01	–.01	–.00	.04**	.03*	.03*	.03*	.03*	.03
Education	–.01	.01	.01	–.02	–.01	–.01	.08	.08	.09	.07	.08	.08
Organization tenure	.03⁺	.03	.03	.03	.03	.03	–.00	.01	.00	.00	–.00	–.00
Incomes	–.00	–.00	–.00	–.00	–.00	–.00	–.00	–.00	–.00	–.00	–.00	–.00
Decent work	.45**						.54**
Safe working Conditions		.20**	.13**	.12**	.11*	.10*		.27**	.20**	.20**	.18**	.17**
Access to healthcare			.17**	.12*	.08	.06			.17**	.14*	.07	.06
Adequate compensation				.11**	.10	.09				.09	.04	.04
Free time and rest					.13*	.12*					.21*	.20**
Complementary values						.09						.06
R	.40	.30	.35	.38	.40	.40	.43	.37	.40	.41	.45	.45
R²	.16	.09	.12	.14	.16	.16	.19	.14	.16	.17	.20	.20
F	9.66	4.95	5.95	6.11	6.11	5.76	11.58	8.05	8.29	7.59	8.18	7.45

Note. *p < .05, ∗∗p < .01.

Discussion of Study 1 Results

Study 1 demonstrated that the DWS exhibited adequate psychometric properties on the Chinese sample. Specifically, the bifactor model of the DWS had the best fit to the data and this model was invariant across gender, monthly income, and enterprise ownership. This finding supported past studies on the construct structure conducted in the US (Duffy et al., 2017), Brazil (Ribeiro et al., 2019), Italy (Di Fabio & Kenny, 2019), Portugal (Ferreira et al., 2019), Turkey (Buyukgoze-Kavas & Autin, 2019; Işık et al., 2019), Switzerland (Masdonati et al., 2019), and the United Kingdom (Dodd et al., 2019). However, Study 1 did not support Wang et al. (2019), who reported inadequate factor loadings for the dimension of healthcare access with the Chinese urban worker sample. This finding indicated the importance of noting that healthcare in China is mostly provided by the employing organizations. Thus, it is necessary to include the dimension of access to healthcare in the Chinese version of the DWS. Study 1 also demonstrated that the DWS had predictability for employee psychological safety and affective commitment. Therefore, the DWS is fit to be utilized to assess the work experiences and workplace outcomes of such experiences of Chinese employees. Building on Study 1, Study 2 explored how and when decent work affects employee affective commitment.

Study 2

The aims of Study 2 were to explore the underlying mechanism linking decent work with employee affective commitment and the boundary condition. Specifically, the study examined the direct and indirect effects of perceived decent work on affective commitment through the mediation of psychological safety and the moderation of labor relations climate.

Method

Participants and Procedure

The data for Study 2 were collected through surveys conducted in 31 firms in the manufacturing, finance, telecommunication, and services industries in Guangxi Province in the People’s Republic of China in October 2019. Chief executive officers (CEOs) of selected firms were contacted via personal networks and sent invitations outlining the research purpose and confidentiality. Following CEO approval, each company randomly selected 50 employees to participate in the research. A link to the questionnaires developed on WJX was sent to 1,550 employees on WeChat through human resources in 31 companies. A cover letter attached to the questionnaire explained that participation was voluntary and that participants could withdraw at any time if they felt uncomfortable about their participation. Researchers interacted with participants online and visited the companies in person to address concerns and questions. To minimize common method variance, we collected data at two time points (Podsakoff et al., 2003). At Time 1, employees answered the questions relating to decent work, labor relations climate, and psychological safety. At Time 1, 705 completed questionnaires were returned. Three weeks later, the 705 employees who completed the questionnaires at Time 1 received new questionnaires and commented on affective commitment. At Time 2, 597 questionnaires were returned. After removing invalid questionnaires, 568 matched and useful questionnaires were retained for further analysis.

The number of the participants per firm ranged from 15 to 28, with the average being 18.32 employees. Of the final sample, 52.8% were male, 16.7% held a junior college diploma or a high school degree, 25.7% held a college diploma, 39.3% held a bachelor’s degree, and 18.3% held a postgraduate degree. The average age was 30.44 years (SD = 5.06), and the average employment tenure was 3.63 years (SD = 2.82). Participants’ monthly income ranged from RMB1,000 (USD151) to RMB12,000 (USD1,818), with an average of RMB5,525 (USD836; SD = RMB1,175 [USD178]).

Measures

Decent Work (T1), Psychological Safety (T1), Affective Commitment (T2)

For these three variables, the same instruments in Study 1, the DWS, psychological safety, and the affective commitment, were used. In Study 2, internal reliability for decent work was .76 and for subscales was .71 (safe working conditions), .77 (access to healthcare), .78 (adequate compensation), .74 (free time and rest), and .75 (complementary values). Internal reliability for psychological safety and affective commitment were .74 and .87, respectively.

Labor Relations Climate (T1)

Labor relations climate was measured using six items from Hammer et al. (1991). Employees were asked to indicate the degree to which they agreed with the description of their relationship with management in the organization on a six-point scale. An example item is “The relationship between workers and management in this organization is hostile” (reverse coded). High scores represent harmonious climates, and low scores represent disputatious climates. Past studies revealed high international reliability for labor relations climate (e.g., α was .92 in Li & Zhou, 2015, and .89 in Snape & Redman, 2012). Internal reliability for this scale in this study was .86. As labor relations climate is shared by all employees, this construct was conceptualized at the organizational level in the present study. To justify the aggregation of this construct to the organizational level, we calculated within-group interrater agreement (R_wg; James et al., 1993), interclass correlations (ICC1), and inter-rate reliability (ICC2; Bliese, 2000). In the present study, the R_wg ranged between .90 and .97, with a mean value of .94. ICC1 and ICC2 were .27 and .85, respectively. These values met the conditions for aggregating the data for labor relations climate to the organizational level (Bliese, 2000; James et al., 1993).

Control Variables

Gender, education, age, current employment tenure, and monthly income were controlled for. Gender was coded as 1 = male and 0 = female. Education was coded as 1 = high school degree or less, 2 = college degree, 3 = bachelor’s degree, and 4 = master’s degree or higher. Age, employment tenure, and monthly income were continuous variables. The number of the participants in each firm was controlled for at the organizational level.

Results

The descriptive statistics on the means, standard deviations, and correlations of the study variables are presented in Table 4. The mean score of the total scale of decent work in Study 2 was consistent with that of Study 1.

Table 4.

Means, Standard Deviations, and Correlations Among the Study Variables (Study 2, n = 568).

Level 1	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
1. Gender
2. Age	.08*
3. Education	–.09*	–.34**
4. Organizational tenure	.12**	.41**	–.17**
5. Income	.02	.31**	.29**	.20**
6. Decent work	.03	.04	–.03	.05	–.03
7. Psychological safety	.06	.06	–.05	.03	–.07	.39**
8. Affective commitment	–.04	.06	.07	.04	.01	.32**	.38**
Mean	.53	30.46	2.59	3.63	5,524.90	3.89	3.65	3.59
SD	.50	5.06	0.97	2.82	1,175.15	.39	.60	.69
Level 2	1	2
1. The number of participants in each firm
2. Labor relations climate	–.07
Mean	18.32	3.29
SD	3.41	.39

*p < .05, ∗∗p < .01.

Two steps were taken to test the measurement model. First, we repeated the EFA and CFA procedures conducted in Study 1 to check distinctiveness of psychological safety and the safety dimension of decent work with the new data. EFA extracted two factors that accounted for 43.01% and 21.61% of the total variance, respectively. CFA showed that the two-factor model fitted the data better than did the one-factor model (Δχ²(1) = 94.69, p < .01, ΔCFI = .24, ΔRMSEA = .16). Second, a measurement model with all latent variables, including decent work, psychological safety, affective commitment, and labor relations climate, was tested. Five subscales were used as the indicators for decent work. CFA with maximum likelihood estimation revealed that the measurement model fitted the data well (χ²[164] = 554.06, CFI = .91, TLI = .90, RMSEA = .06).

Although the data were collected at two time points, the use of the single-source data might have resulted in common method variance (Podsakoff et al., 2003). We adopted Podsakoff et al.’s (2003) approach to compare the fit of the measurement model with that of a model loading all indicators on a method factor. The method model (χ²[144] = 424.86, CFI = .93, TLI = .91, RMSEA = .06, Δχ² = 129.20, p < .01, ΔCFI = .02, ΔRMSEA = .00) fitted the data better than the measurement model. However, the changes in CFI and RMSEA were less than the .05 rule. Hence, common method variance was not a serious problem with the data.

Our theoretical framework is multilevel in nature. Before testing the hypotheses, we ran null models to determine whether multilevel modeling was suitable for testing our meso model (Hofmann, 1997). The results of null models without explanatory factors indicated that 8.3% and 18.4% of variance in psychological safety (u₀, χ²[30] = 76.25, p < .01) and affective commitment (u₀, χ²[30] = 145.11, p < .01) could be explained by organization-level factors. Hence, multilevel modeling was an appropriate approach for hypothesis estimation.

The path analytic method was used to test our multilevel moderated mediation model (MacKinnon et al., 2002) with Mplus 7.40. Following Raudenbush and Bryk’s (2002) recommendation, level 1 variables were group-mean centered, and labor relations climate, which was a level 2 variable, was grand-mean centered. The results of path analysis are summarized in Table 5. Hypothesis 1 suggests that decent work is directly related to affective commitment. As Table 5 shows, the direct effect of decent work on affective commitment is positively significant (B = .40, p < .01). Therefore, Hypothesis 1 was supported.

Table 5.

Results of Path Analysis (Study 2, n = 568).

Variables		Psychological Safety		Affective Commitment
Variables		B		B
Gender		.05		–.08
Age		.01		.01
Education		.02		.07
Organization tenure		–.01		.00
Incomes		–.03		.02
Number of participants for each firm		.00		–.01
Decent work		.62**		.40**
Labor relations climate		.24*		.33**
Decent work* Labor relations climate		.17*		.09
Psychological safety				.31**
		B		95%CI
Indirect path	DW→PS→AC	.19**		[.14, .23]
Level	First stage	Second stage	Indirect effect	95%CI of indirect effect
High LRC	.69**	.31**	.21**	[.15, .27]
Low LRC	.55**	.31**	.17**	[.12, .21]
Difference	.14*	.31**	.04*	[.01, .08]

*p < .05, **p < .01.

Hypothesis 2 proposes that decent work affects affective commitment via the mediation of psychological safety. The results showed that decent work is positively related to psychological safety (B = .62, p < .01), while the latter is also positively related to affective commitment (B = .31, p < .01). Given that decent work is directly related to affective commitment, psychological safety partially mediates the relationship between decent work and affective commitment (Baron & Kenny, 1986). Results of the parametric bootstrap procedure with 5,000 Monte Carlo replications (Preacher et al., 2010) revealed that the indirect effect of decent work on affective commitment via psychological safety was .19, with 95% CI between .14 and .23 (which contained no 0). Therefore, Hypothesis 2 was supported.

Hypothesis 3 posits that labor relations climate moderates the indirect effect of decent work on affective commitment through the mediation of psychological safety. The coefficient of interaction of decent work and labor relations climates on psychological safety was significantly positive (B = .17, p < .05). The procedure recommended by Aiken and West (1991) was used to plot the moderating effect of labor relations climate and calculate simple effects at high (i.e., +1 SD) and low (i.e., −1 SD) levels of the moderator. As Figure 1 shows, the relationship between decent work and psychological safety was stronger when the level of labor relations climate was high (B = .69, p < .01) vs when the level was low (B = .55, p < .01). To test the moderated mediation effect, we followed the recommendation of Edwards and Lambert (2007) to calculate the indirect effect of decent work on affective commitment via psychological safety at higher (+1 SD) and lower (–1 SD) levels of labor relations climate. The results revealed that the indirect effect was .21 with a 95% CI of (.15, .27) when the labor relations climate was higher, whereas the indirect effect was .17 with a 95% CI of (.12, .21) when the labor relations climate was lower. The value of the difference in the indirect effects of psychological safety between decent work and affective commitment was .04 with a 95% CI of (.01, .08), demonstrating that labor relations climate moderates the indirect effect of psychological safety between decent work and affective commitment. Taking these results together, Hypothesis 3 was supported. The results of path estimates are presented in Figure 2.

Figure 1.

Moderating effect of labor relations climate.

Figure 2.

Structural model with path estimates. Note. LRC = labor relations climate.

Discussion of Study 2 Results

Analyzing the two-waved survey data, Study 2 revealed that decent work was directly and indirectly related to employee affective commitment through the mediation of psychological safety. This indirect relationship was moderated by labor relations climate. These results supported the findings of Study 1—that DWS can predict employee psychological safety and affective commitment—and further explained why and when decent work affects employee affective commitment. In addition, the finding of the moderating role of labor relations climate indicates that workplace climate not only acts as a predictor of decent work (England et al., 2020) but also functions as the boundary factor that can change the effect strength of decent work on its employee workplace attitudinal outcomes.

General Discussion

This two-study research served two purposes: (1) to evaluate the cross-cultural applicability of the DWS and (2) to examine the effect of decent work on employee work attitudinal outcomes in the Chinese context. This paper demonstrates that the DWS has excellent psychometric properties in relation to reliability and validity among Chinese employees, thereby supporting past research that has found the DWS with a bifactor structure valid in cross-cultural settings (e.g., Buyukgoze-Kavas & Autin, 2019; Di Fabio & Kenny, 2019; Dodd et al., 2019; Duffy et al., 2017; Ferreira et al., 2019; Işık et al., 2019; Kozan et al., 2019; Masdonati et al., 2019; Nam & Kim, 2019; Ribeiro et al., 2019). However, the applicability of the DWS has generally been tested in Western countries, which are culturally and institutionally different from China. For example, unlike many Western cultures, Chinese culture is characterized by a high level of in-group collectivism, power distance, and restraint, which means that Chinese people are more likely than people in Western cultures to tolerate low employee participation in decision-making and long working hours. Moreover, Chinese unions are not independent of enterprise management and government (Liu, 2010). In addition, most employees in China do not have tenured jobs as the length of employment contracts is usually between 1 and 3 years (Howell & Pringle, 2019). However, the findings of this research suggest that even when applied in the Chinese context (different from Western contexts), the DWS is an operational measurement tool with high reliability and validity. Thus, this research is useful in advancing research on the work experiences of people in non-Western contexts.

The paper suggests that all five dimensions of DWS should be retained when the DWS scale is used in the Chinese context. This finding does not support Wang et al. (2019), who suggested that the healthcare dimension should be removed when the DWS is applied in the Chinese context. This finding indicates that Wang et al. (2019) failed to consider the fact that Chinese employers are legally obliged to fund healthcare insurance for employees under the Insurance Law of the People’s Republic of China (i.e., those in China in long-term employment receive more healthcare than those unemployed or in short-term employment).

This paper also demonstrates that the DWS had predictability for employee psychological safety and affective commitment. Therefore, the DWS is fit to be utilized to assess the work experiences and is effective in examining workplace outcomes of such experiences of Chinese employees. This research suggests that in China, securing decent work promotes psychological safety, which in turn leads to employee affective commitment. This finding is consistent with PWT, which proposes that decent work has positive psychological outcomes (Duffy et al., 2016). This finding suggests that psychological safety is an important outcome of decent work and is appropriate to be included in the PWT model. Moreover, the finding about the direct and indirect effects of decent work on affective commitment adds to the research on decent work from the work attitudinal perspective (Cooke et al., 2019). This finding supports the literature suggesting that decent work partially overlaps with wellbeing-oriented HRM practices, which positively affect employee work attitudes, such as affective commitment (Cooper et al., 2019). This finding also suggests that as a comprehensive construct with multiple dimensions, decent work overlaps with other employee-focused workplace policies, such as high commitment HRM (Boon & Kalshoven, 2014) and time-flexible work policies (Halpern, 2005). These employee-focused workplace policies have been proven positively related to employee work attitudes (e.g., Boon & Kalshoven, 2014; Halpern, 2005). Thus, it can be suggested that securing decent work has similar predictability for employee work attitudes. Although this research used two I-O psychology theories—social identity theory (Tajfel & Turner, 1985) and social exchange theory (Blau, 1964)—to examine the relationship between decent work and affective commitment, there is strong evidence to suggest that PWT also has explanatory power for employee work attitudinal outcomes of decent work.

Further, the current research demonstrates that labor relations climate moderates the direct relationship between decent work and psychological safety, and the indirect relationship between decent work and affective commitment through the mediation of psychological safety. Because the original PWT model does not include work attitudinal outcomes of decent work, this finding extends PWT and decent work research relating to the boundary conditions that can alter the direction and strength of the effect of decent work on employee work attitudes. To conclude, this paper adds to the PWT and decent work research by advancing understanding of employee work attitudinal outcomes of decent work in a non-Western context.

Practical Implications

This two-study research demonstrates that organizations can elicit positive employee work attitudes through interventions from work and industrial relations perspectives. From the work perspective, organizations wishing to enhance employee affective commitment should strive to provide a decent work environment. This is important because as past research has found, decent work has great benefits for employee physical and mental health (Duffy et al., 2019; Wang et al., 2019). More specifically, organizations should ensure workplace safety and avoid mental or emotional abuse. In addition, flexible work policies should be implemented to ensure adequate time off; compensation should be internally equitable and externally competitive (Cooper et al., 2019). In countries such as China, employers are legally obliged to provide healthcare insurance to employees. Under these circumstances, the provision of healthcare is not only compliant with labor laws but also enhances employee organizational commitment. To ensure organizational values complement those of families and society, organizations need to conform to social norms and adapt accordingly as social norms evolve. From the industrial relations perspective, given that employee work attitudinal consequences of decent work greatly depend on the labor relations climate, it is critical for organizations to develop cooperative and harmonious labor relations. To do so, employers should establish an effective mechanism, involving employees in decision-making relating to work issues such as job arrangements, working hours and shifts, compensation, and workplace safety. When unions are unable to protect workers’ rights, it is important for employers to directly engage employees in such decision-making.

Limitations and Future Research Directions

This research has several limitations that must be addressed. First, in China, there are significant differences in wages, benefits, and job security issues across sectors, occupations, and regions. The size of the sample used in this paper was small and involved limited industries, locations, and occupations. According to Kim et al. (2020) and in line with PWT, decent work has different meanings for different people. We suggest that future research should involve a more diverse population and explore the roles of demographic and contextual factors in understanding the antecedents and consequences of decent work. Second, only psychological safety was included as a mediator in our theoretical framework. From the PWT perspective, in addition to psychological wellbeing, needs satisfaction and work fulfillment may play important mediating roles. From the I-O perspective, variables such as organizational support, justice, trust, and psychological contract fulfillment may also play critical mediating roles. Similarly, only the moderation of labor relations climate was explored in our research. Future research should test different boundary factors to enrich research on decent work and PWT. Finally, an important avenue for future research would be to explore employee organizational behavioral outcomes of decent work because employee organizational attitudes have consequences for employee organizational behaviors (Farooq et al., 2014).

Footnotes

Authors’ Note

The IRB approval was authorized by the first and second authors’ institution.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article: Natural Science Foundation of Guangdong Province (2020A1515010324) and Guangdone provincial key research projects (2019WZDXM01).

ORCID iD

Jie Shen

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