Testing the Career Construction Model of Adaptation in a Sample of Afghanistan’s Working Adults: A Longitudinal Study

Abstract

This study tested the Career Construction Model of Adaptation (CCMA) in a sample of Afghanistan’s working adults amid the COVID-19 pandemic. The measures of adaptation were applied at three time points, that is, positive orientation toward future (adaptive readiness) at Time 1, career adaptability (adaptability resources) and competence need satisfaction at work (adapting responses) at Time 2, and meaningful work (adaptation result) at Time 3. Testing the model through Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) indicated that the indirect effect of positive orientation toward future at Time 1 on meaningful work at Time 3 via the combination of career adaptability and competence need satisfaction at work at Time 2 was significant and positive. Results support Afghan employees’ career construction over time. Theoretical contribution of the results and strategies for assisting Afghan employees in crafting their careers in the current political situation are discussed. Study limitations and prospects for future research are also discussed.

Keywords

career construction model of adaptation positive orientation toward future career adaptability competence need satisfaction at work meaningful work COVID-19 pandemic Afghanistan’s working adults

The CCMA highlights the process of career construction during an individual’s life span based on the sequence of four steps, that is, adaptive readiness → adaptability resources → adapting responses → adaptation results (Savickas, 2013). Adaptive readiness or adaptivity is a trait-like psychological component that indicates the readiness and willingness to adapt to career changes to influence the development and use of career adaptability resources (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). Adaptability resources represent transactional and changeable proficiencies/abilities permitting individuals to manage present and expected development tasks, professional transitions, and personal obstacles pertaining to their occupational roles as well as to effectively address complex, unfamiliar, and ill-structured problems throughout their careers (Rudolph et al., 2017). Adapting responses are used to address career development tasks as well as changing work and career conditions (Hirschi et al., 2015). Adaptation results are the outcomes of adapting responses and are assessed through such indicators as employability, work performance, job satisfaction, and subjective well-being (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012).

Particularly relevant in the contemporary career context, the CCMA allows individuals to manage their careers independently, increase their employability, update their skills on a regular basis across the lifespan, actively craft their careers, and develop resilience to manage unpredictable changes as well as adapt to professional transitions (Di, 2012; Ferreira, 2014; Forrier & Sels, 2003; Savickas, 2013). Keeping in view the relevance of the CCMA to the contemporary career landscape, this study tests its four components in a sample of Afghan working adults during the COVID-19 pandemic based on a three-wave longitudinal design.

The four components of the CCMA can be tested based on different combinations of constructs as well as different contexts, populations, and time-lag designs. The scope of testing the CCMA is therefore quite broad to make valuable contributions to the field. This study is important on account of four major reasons. First, previous research has not studied the combination of positive orientation toward future, career adaptability, competence need satisfaction at work, and meaningful work in a mediation model. This study therefore addresses this gap in the career construction literature. Second, this research confirms the validity of the CCMA beyond college or university students, as it is based on working adults. Only a couple of studies testing the CCMA are based on working adults; for instance, school teachers (Green, 2021a) and workers with Chiari malformation (Tokar et al., 2020). Third, this is among the very few studies (e.g., Guan et al., 2014; Šverko & Babarović, 2018) to test the four components of the CCMA based on a three-wave longitudinal design. Other studies have used a two-wave design to test either four components (Zhuang et al., 2018) or three components (Hirschi et al., 2015) of the CCMA. A four-wave design has also been used to test three of its components (Green, 2021a). It is also relevant to mention here that this is among the sparse studies to test the full sequence of its four components (e.g., Guan et al., 2014; Merino-Tejedor et al., 2016; Ochoco & Ty, 2021; Öztemel & Yıldız-Akyol, 2020; Perera & McIlveen, 2017; Šverko & Babarović, 2018; Tokar et al., 2020; Zhuang et al., 2018). Lastly, to the best of our knowledge, there is practically no research on vocational psychology from Afghanistan. This is in all likelihood the first study to test the CCMA based on a sample of Afghan working adults. This research makes an important contribution based on demonstrating the importance of career adaptation in the context of Afghanistan’s collective culture and how Afghan working adults may engage in career self-management in the prevailing political scenario.

This study is organized as follows. First, we outline the major characteristics of Afghanistan’s working adults in the context of its collectivistic culture. Second, we review the CCMA and the constructs used in this study to represent its components. We also explicate the hypothesized relationship among the study constructs based on which the CCMA is tested. Third, we present the study hypotheses followed by the research methodology and the presentation of results. Fourth, the discussion section features the theoretical contribution and practice implications of the results. This section also focuses on how career construction may be pertinent for Afghan employees in the current political climate. Lastly, we discuss the limitations of the study and prospects for future research.

Afghan Working Adults

In this study, Afghan working adults and Afghan employees are used interchangeably denoting the urban, prosperous, and educated segment of the population. Predominantly composed of emerging adults, the Afghans belonging to this segment are success-oriented and determined to improve their personal circumstances as well as strive hard to procure a good life for their families (Green et al., 2021a; Rarick et al., 2013). Similar to individuals in other collective cultures, Afghans are group-oriented, considerate of the sentiments of their family members, and devoted to family well-being (Green, 2022; Islam, 2004; Yama et al., 2007). Also, individual accomplishment—in the form of career or educational achievements—for most Afghan working adults is essentially directed towards gaining the respect and admiration of their parents, friends, and community members. This is possibly because individual pride and accomplishment of any sort in collectivistic societies are less fulfilling than setting and achieving goals for others (D’raven & Pasha-Zaidi, 2016; Green, 2022). Hence, the career construction efforts of Afghan employees may ultimately be aimed at advancing the prosperity and well-being of their families.

Theoretical Framework and Study Constructs

The CCMA proposes that “adaptive readiness mobilizes adaptability resources that shape adapting responses to produce adaptation results” (Savickas et al., 2018, p. 139). According to the model, individuals differ in their willingness (adaptive readiness) and competence (adaptability resources) to develop beliefs and demonstrate associated behaviors (adapting responses) that enable them to address challenges and adapt to the changing environmental conditions to integrate into and adequately fit within their occupational roles over time (adaptation results; Savickas, 2013; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012; Hirschi et al., 2015). In the following four sections, we review the constructs representing the components of the CCMA as well as elucidate their importance in the context of Afghan working adults.

Adaptive Readiness

In this study, adaptive readiness is operationally defined as positive orientation toward future—a single global dimension—encompassing hope and optimism as correlating but distinct indicators (Bryant & Cvengros, 2004; Santilli et al., 2017). The two constructs have also been considered as constructs of adaptive readiness in previous research (e.g., Hirschi et al., 2015; Rudolph et al., 2017; Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). Hope is a future-directed, affective variable sustaining action and affecting thoughts and behaviors (Scioli et al., 2011). Optimism reflects an overall positive appraisal of the future and of the things that may happen (Karademas, 2005).

Relevant to note is that individuals with lower levels of hope and optimism may not be able to actively engage in their career progression (Ginevra et al., 2017). Hope enables individuals to muster the strength and motivation to implement strategies for attaining career success (Youssef & Luthans, 2007). It plays a vital role in career development, as it permits individuals to envisage possibilities and inspires them to take positive action regardless of the situation in their lives (Niles et al., 2011). Furthermore, optimism—as a human strength and virtue (Sheldon & King, 2001)—is germane to future career planning. It allows individuals to invest additional efforts and demonstrate resilience to realize their future wishes and at the same time face challenges with positivity (Ginevra et al., 2017). As such, amid the rising feelings of insecurity, uncertainty, and negativity because of the COVID-19 pandemic as well as the social, economic, and political issues in Afghanistan (Cousins, 2020), it was considered important to test positive orientation toward future as a construct of adaptive readiness—the first step in the career construction process.

Adaptability Resources

Representing the second component of the CCMA, adaptability resources are measured as general career adaptability, which is measured in terms of its four resources/dimensions, namely, concern, control, curiosity, and confidence (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). These resources are self-regulation strengths or capacities that people may draw upon to manage, negotiate, or address career changes (Savickas, 2013). As such, these resources are considered pertinent for career self-management (Hirschi, 2012). Career concern reflects the extent to which employees are future-oriented and prepare themselves for forthcoming tasks and challenges. Career control represents the degree to which employees take personal responsibility for their development and for influencing their work environment through dedication, persistence, and self-discipline. Career curiosity enables employees to explore possible selves and opportunities as well as to reflect on how they could influence various work roles and settings. Career confidence reflects employees’ confidence that they can successfully realize their goals and aptly address different career-related obstacles (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012).

With regard to Afghan working adults, the pandemic as well as the social, economic, and political situation of Afghanistan may adversely influence their attainment of life-career goals and therefore jeopardize the future of their families. In such circumstances, career adaptability may be imperative for career self-management to allow them to construct a sustainable and desirable future for themselves and their families. Fundamentally, career adaptability resources are activated in time of need to permit individuals to cater to their professional growth and development as well as to effectively address career obstacles (Savickas, 2002, 2005, 2013). It is also worth noting that Afghan employees’ concern for the future of their families possibly stems from the group-oriented nature and the greater good approach of collective cultures wherein a person’s well-being depends on the well-being of others (Christakis & Fowler, 2009).

Career adaptability and positive orientation toward future were also considered appropriate for testing the CCMA because of the Life Design paradigm. Career adaptability, hope, and optimism are important resources in the life designing process enabling individuals to manage their work world as well as counter the challenges of the contemporary society (Di Maggio et al., 2021). Amassing these resources may therefore increase Afghan working adults’ possibility to experience suitable life conditions and professional fulfillment (Ferrari et al., 2015).

Adapting Responses

These represent the third component of the CCMA. In this study, competence need satisfaction at work measures adapting responses. This construct has also been used as an indicator of adapting responses in a study by Tokar et al. (2020). Competence need satisfaction at work is the extent to which the working environment fulfils one’s desire to be proficient at work based on developing new skills and gaining mastery over the environment. This need aims at enabling individuals to pursue optimal challenges and to enrich their personal skills (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

Competence need satisfaction at work was considered appropriate for testing the CCMA with regard to working adults because of two major reasons. First, the work experience of the study participants ranged between 4 and 25 years, and hence, their adaptive responses at work reflected their level of proficiency or capability at activities that support effective on the job performance as well as help in the attainment of work-related goals (Tokar et al., 2020). Second, for most participants, the work environment may not have been very conducive to fulfilling their need for competence at work. This is because Afghanistan’s socio-economic conditions may adversely influence the work environment. It is noteworthy that a work environment that fosters well-being, personal growth, and optimal functioning is likely to fulfill employees’ need for competence (Deci & Ryan, 2000).

Adaptation Results

Adaptation results represent the final step in the career construction process. As an important indicator of work well-being, meaningful work assesses adaptation results in this study based on the conceptualization of Steger et al. (2012). According to them, meaningful work comprises three distinct dimensions, which are: (1) positive meaning (this dimension captures the sense that individuals perceive their work to matter and be meaningful), (2) meaning-making through work (this reflects the broader life context of people’s work that nurtures personal growth), and (3) greater good motivations (this dimension represents the idea that work is most meaningful if it has a broader impact on others).

Meaningful work was considered appropriate for testing the CCMA likely because Afghan working adults’ view of work falls under the aforementioned dimensions of meaningful work. Most Afghan employees view work as a means of personal development and professional growth (e.g., growing within one’s field, improving one’s life quality, and honing one’s strengths), which they believe is important for contributing to the greater good in terms of fulfilling the needs and expectations of family members, offering them a better life, and helping close friends or relatives in their hour of need. Essentially, in Afghanistan’s collectivistic society, personal accomplishment and pride based on one’s work are eventually geared towards the welfare, safety, and happiness of the group (i.e., family, close friends, and relatives). Previous research on collectivistic societies has also indicated the same (D’raven & Pasha-Zaidi, 2016; Green, 2022; Jones, 2011).

Relationship among the CCMA Variables

According to the Career Construction Theory (CCT; Savickas, 2005, 2013), (a) adaptive readiness relates positively to adaptability, (b) adaptability relates positively to adapting responses, and (c) adapting responses relate positively to adaptation results. CCT also suggests that adaptability shapes adaptation results through its influence on adapting responses. Further, the CCMA assumes that adaptive readiness influences adapting responses through its effect on career adaptability (Savickas & Porfeli, 2012). This study tests the CCMA based on the associations mentioned above. With regard to the study variables representing the components of the CCMA, previous research has indicated that positive orientation toward future is related to career adaptability (Ginevra et al., 2017; Santilli et al., 2017), which is related to competence need satisfaction at work as well as meaningful work. In addition, competence need satisfaction at work is related to meaningful work (Tokar et al., 2020). Based on the relationships stated above, we assume that (a) greater positive orientation toward future is related to higher career adaptability, which in turn is related to greater competence need satisfaction at work; (b) higher career adaptability is related to greater competence need satisfaction at work, which in turn is related to greater meaningful work; and (c) greater positive orientation toward future is serially related to higher career adaptability and greater competence need satisfaction at work, both of which are then related to greater meaningful work.

Study Hypotheses

This longitudinal study focuses on the relationship among the four dimensions/steps of the adaptation process. We followed Afghan employees for 8 months to examine their career adaptation. The measures of adaptation were applied at three time points, that is, positive orientation toward future (adaptive readiness) at Time 1, career adaptability (adaptability) and competence need satisfaction at work (adapting response) at Time 2, and meaningful work (adaptation result) at Time 3. The interval between each time point was 4 months.

Based on the theoretical framework and the empirical evidence reviewed above, we hypothesize that adaptive readiness at Time 1 will relate positively and indirectly (via adaptability at Time 2) to adapting responses at Time 2 (Hypothesis 1), adaptability at Time 2 will relate positively and indirectly (via adapting responses at Time 2) to adaptation results at Time 3 (Hypothesis 2), and adaptive readiness at Time 1 will relate positively and indirectly (via the combination of adaptability and adapting responses at Time 2) to adaptation results at Time 3 (Hypothesis 3).

Method

Participants and Procedure

This study was conducted under the Contemporary Research Initiative at the Preston University. The data collection process was managed by the third author. Data were collected through social media platforms, such as Facebook, LinkedIn, Researchgate, and WhatsApp. In addition, five universities in Kabul, Herat, and Mazar-e-Sharif were also approached requesting their student affairs/placement offices to forward the online survey to their alumni who were employed. The alumni were requested to forward the survey to their colleagues as well. Professional contacts working in different organizations were also contacted and requested to forward the online survey to their colleagues. Finally, Afghan alumni of Preston University were also asked to help in the data collection process. Participants were clearly explained the importance and objectives of the study and that they were required to complete two follow-up online surveys. The data collection process was open for 2 weeks at each period. A reminder was sent to participants through WhatsApp and email on the eighth day of the 2-week data collection period for each follow-up measurement.

At wave 1 (October 1–15, 2020), 493 participants participated in the study and completed the first online survey pertaining to positive orientation toward future and socio-demographics. The average age of 217 (44%) men and 276 (56%) women was 30.05 years (SD = 5.45) and 68% reported being married. The average work experience of the participants was 7.16 years (SD = 5.59). In addition, 27% worked in the public sector, 38% in the private sector, 24% in the development sector, and 11% in their family-owned or personal business. Further, 50% had a bachelors’ degree, 44% a masters’ degree, and 6% a post-masters’ degree.

At wave 2 (February 15–March 1, 2021), 83% (409) participants who completed the online survey at Time 1 completed the first follow-up survey pertaining to career adaptability and competence need satisfaction at work. The average age of 188 (46%) men and 221 (54%) women was 30.13 years (SD = 5.51) and 69% of them were married. The average work experience of the participants was 7.24 years (SD = 5.66). Further, 26% worked in the public sector, 37% in the private sector, 25% in the development sector, and 12% in their family-owned or personal business. In addition, 50% had a bachelors’ degree, 45% a masters’ degree, and 5% a post-masters’ degree.

At wave 3 (July 1–July 15, 2021), 76% (311) participants who completed the online survey at Time 2 completed the second follow-up survey pertaining to meaningful work. The average age of 134 (43%) men and 177 (57%) women was 30.04 years (SD = 5.44) and 70% of them were married. The average work experience was 7.15 years (SD = 5.63). In addition, 28% worked in the public sector, 37% in the private sector, 24% in the development sector, and 11% in their family-owned or personal business. Further, 46% had a bachelors’ degree, 49% a masters’ degree, and 5% a post-masters’ degree.

Measures

The English version of the measures was administered to the study participants as they possess a good knowledge of English. This is likely because English is taught as a second language in the secondary, higher secondary, and tertiary educational institutions in Afghanistan. Moreover, English is the medium of instruction in private schools. Furthermore, as the measures are simple and easy to comprehend; therefore, it was deemed appropriate to keep their true essence alive by developing the online surveys in English. The four measures were pilot tested for this study to determine their validity (through confirmatory factor analysis; CFA) and reliability (based on the value of Cronbach’s alpha). These assessed the appropriateness of administering the English version of the scales to Afghan working adults.

Positive Orientation toward Future

Developed by Santilli et al. (2017), this 13-item scale has two subscales, namely, hope (e.g., “I feel that I will get along quite well in my personal and professional life”; seven items) and optimism (e.g., “Even if I encounter difficulties in the future I will continue being optimistic”; six items). Participants responded to each item on a 5-point Likert scale (1 = not strong; 5 = strongest). The authors reported a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.88 for hope and 0.78 for optimism. Further, CFA revealed that the scale was an adequate fit, χ² (60, N = 157) = 92.33, p = .097; χ²/df = 1.54; RMSEA = 0.054; RMSEA 90% CI [.03; .08]; CFI = 0.98; TLI = 0.97; NFI = 0.96; SRMR = 0.045. The Cronbach’s alpha value of the global scale was 0.90. Hope had an alpha value of 0.86, whereas optimism 0.84. The two factors were moderately correlated and factor loadings ranged from 0.58 to 0.83. Higher scores on the scale suggest a greater positive orientation toward future. The internal consistency based on the study sample at Time 1 calculated to 0.93 for the global scale, 0.88 for hope, and 0.85 for optimism.

Career Adaptability

The 12 items Career Adapt-Abilities Scale-Short Form (CAAS-SF; Maggiori et al., 2017) was used in this study. CAAS-SF has four subscales representing its four dimensions (concern, control, curiosity, and confidence). It uses a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = not a strength; 5 = greatest strength) for participants to rate each item. Sample items in the scale are “Thinking about what my future will be like” (concern), “Making decisions by myself” (control), “Observing different ways of doing things” (curiosity), and “Taking care to do things well” (confidence). As reported by Maggiori et al. (2017), the Cronbach’s alpha values calculated to 0.81, 0.82, 0.77, 0.83, and 0.90 for concern, control, curiosity, confidence, and the global scale respectively in a sample of French-speaking adults. In addition, CFA revealed that the CAAS-SF was an adequate fit, χ² (41, N = 157) = 54.77, p = .084; χ²/df = 1.34; RMSEA = 0.046; RMSEA 90% CI [.0; .07]; CFI = 0.98; TLI = 0.98; NFI = 0.97; SRMR = 0.034. The Cronbach’s alpha value for the global scale showed a high internal consistency (α = 0.93). Concern had an alpha value of 0.82, control 0.85, curiosity 0.84, and confidence 0.87. The four factors were moderately correlated and factor loadings ranged from 0.54 to 0.79. Higher scores on the scale suggest higher career adaptability. Based on the study sample at Time 2, the global scale had an alpha value of 0.92, concern 0.85, control 0.82, curiosity 0.86, and confidence 0.83.

Competence Need Satisfaction at Work

This was assessed through the Competence Scale of the Basic Psychological Needs Satisfaction at Work Scale (BPNS-W) by Deci et al. (2001). A sample item in the 6-item scale is “Most days I feel a sense of accomplishment from my job.” This study used a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = not at all true; 5 = very true) instead of the original 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = not at all true; 7 = very true). The authors reported a Cronbach’s alpha value of 0.81 for competence in a sample of Bulgarian students. Furthermore, CFA revealed that the scale was an adequate fit, χ² (7, N = 157) = 11.22, p = .13; χ²/df = 1.60; RMSEA = 0.062; RMSEA 90% CI [.0; .13]; CFI = 0.99; TLI = 0.97; NFI = 0.96; SRMR = 0.037. The Cronbach’s alpha value of the competence scale amounted to 0.92. Factor loadings ranged from 0.67 to 0.88. Higher scores on the scale suggest greater competence need satisfaction at work. The internal consistency of the scale based on the study sample at Time 2 calculated to 0.93.

Meaningful Work

This was assessed through the 10-item Work as Meaning Inventory (WAMI; Steger et al., 2012). The scale has three subscales, namely, positive meaning (e.g., “I have found a meaningful career”; four items), meaning-making through work (e.g., “My work helps me better understand myself”; 3 items), and greater good motivations (e.g., “I know my work makes a positive difference in the world”; 3 items). This study used a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 = strongly agree) instead of the original 7-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree; 7 = strongly agree). According to the Steger et al. (2012), the Cronbach’s alpha values calculated to 0.89, 0.82, 0.83, and 0.93 for positive meaning, meaning-making through work, greater good motivations, and the global scale respectively in a sample of university employees. Furthermore, CFA revealed that the WAMI was an adequate fit, χ² (27, N = 157) = 35.94, p = .084; χ²/df = 1.33; RMSEA = .05; RMSEA 90% CI [.0; .08]; CFI = 0.99; TLI = 0.99; NFI = 0.98; SRMR = 0.030. The Cronbach’s alpha value for the global scale showed a high internal consistency (α = 0.91). Positive meaning had an alpha value of 0.84, meaning-making through work 0.87, and greater good motivations 0.83. The three factors were moderately correlated and factor loadings ranged from 0.62 to 0.81. Higher scores on the scale suggest greater meaningful work. Based on the study sample at Time 3, the global scale had an alpha value of 0.90, positive meaning 0.88, meaning-making through work 0.84, and greater good motivations 0.81.

Data Analysis

The analytic approach entailed two steps. First, descriptive statistics and correlations were calculated for the study variables using SPSS 24. Second, a two-step approach was employed to analyze the mediation effect. To assess the goodness of fit, we first tested the measurement model that included four latent variables with their explicit indicators. Next, using the maximum likelihood estimation, we tested the model through SEM using AMOS 24. Indirect effects were examined using the bootstrap method (Preacher & Hayes, 2008). Multiple indices were used to assess the model fit. These included the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), the comparative fit index (CFI), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR), and the relative chi-square (CMIN/DF) alongside the chi-square and degrees of freedom. According to Hu and Bentler (1999), good model fit values are those that are > 0.90 for TLI and CFI, < 3 for CIMIN/DF, < 0.6 for RMSEA, and < 0.8 for SRMR.

Results

Preliminary Analyses

The suitability of data for analyses was ensured by applying the Winsorization approach (Dixon & Tukey, 1968) to minimize the effect of possible spurious outliers. Table 1 presents the means and standard deviations of the study variables, which showed appropriate normality. The skewness values were between −3 and +3 and kurtosis values between −10 to +10 (Brown, 2006). Table 1 also shows that all variables were positively related to each other.

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics and Correlations.

		Descriptive statistics						Correlations
No.	Variable	Min	Max	M	SD	Skew	Kurt	1.	2.	3.	4.
1	Positive orientation toward future (time 1)	1	5	3.90	0.87	−0.76	0.52	—	0.67	0.38	0.72
2	Career adaptability (time 2)	1	5	4.11	0.82	−0.90	1.11		—	0.37	0.71
3	Competence need satisfaction at work (time 2)	1	5	3.40	0.98	−0.15	−0.23			—	0.41
4	Meaningful work (time 3)	1	5	3.74	0.92	−0.53	−0.04				—

Note. All correlations are significant at p < .001.

Measurement Model

CFA tested the measurement model including the four interrelated latent variables: positive orientation toward future at Time 1, career adaptability at Time 2, competence need satisfaction at work at Time 2, and meaningful work at Time 3. Positive orientation toward future was described by hope and optimism, whereas career adaptability by concern, control, curiosity, and confidence. Parcels were created for the other two latent variables, competence need satisfaction at work and meaningful work (two parcels per variable). The parcelling approach was based on assigning scale items to parcels by taking their item-total correlations into account to reduce the inflated measurement errors (Yildirim & Belen, 2019). For competence need satisfaction at work, the first parcel included items 2, 3, and 4, while the second included items 1, 5, and 6. For meaningful work, the first parcel included items 1, 2, 3, 5, and 10, whereas the second included items 4, 6, 7, 8, and 9. The measurement model fit the observed data well: χ² (29) = 80.91, p < .001, CIMIN/DF = 2.79, CFI= .98, TLI = .97, RMSEA = .076 and SRMR = .027.

Structural Model

The proposed structural model (cf. Figure 1) using maximum likelihood estimation examined the associations between positive orientation toward future at Time 1, career adaptability at Time 2, competence need satisfaction at work at Time 2, and meaningful work at Time 3. Results indicated good data fit: χ² (29) = 80.91, p < .001, CIMIN/DF = 2.79, CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.97, RMSEA = 0.076 and SRMR = 0.027. Positive orientation toward future at Time 1 significantly predicted career adaptability at Time 2 (β = 0.80, p < .001), competence need satisfaction at work at Time 2 (β = 0.28, p < .01), and meaningful work at Time 3 (β = 0.50, p < .001). Career adaptability at Time 2 significantly predicted competence need satisfaction at work at Time 2 (β = 0.27, p < .01) and meaningful work at Time 3 (β = 0.37, p < .001). Competence need satisfaction at work at Time 2 significantly predicted meaningful work at Time 3 (β = 0.12, p < .01). In total, the proposed model accounted for 79% of the variance in meaningful work. The standardized and unstandardized direct estimates are presnted in Table 2.

Figure 1.

Structural Model.

Table 2.

Standardized and Unstandardized Direct Estimates.

Predictor		Outcome	B	β	S.E.	p
Positive orientation toward Future	→	Career Adaptability	0.65	0.80	0.05	***
Career adaptability	→	Competence need satisfaction at work	0.40	0.27	0.15	.01
Positive orientation toward future	→	Competence need satisfaction at work	0.34	0.28	0.13	.01
Competence need satisfaction at work	→	Meaningful work	0.11	0.12	0.04	.01
Positive orientation toward future	→	Meaningful work	0.52	0.50	0.08	***
Career adaptability	→	Meaningful work	0.47	0.37	0.09	***

Note. *** p < 0.001.

Indirect effects

Table 3 shows five unique indirect relations. However, we considered the three unique indirect relations, which were relevant for testing the CCMA as per our hypotheses. Further, based on the recommendations of Preacher and Hayes (2008), we generated 5000 bootstrapped samples to obtain indirect effects estimates (cf. Table 3). As hypothesized, the indirect effect of positive orientation toward future at Time 1 on competence need satisfaction at work at Time 2 via career adaptability at Time 2 was significant and positive (β = 0.26, SE = 0.11, 95% CI [0.07, 0.49]; Hypothesis 1). Further, the indirect effect of career adaptability at Time 2 on meaningful work at Time 3 via competence need satisfaction at work at Time 2 was significant and positive (β = 0.04, SE = 0.03, 95% CI [0.01, 0.11]; Hypothesis 2). Finally, the indirect effect of positive orientation toward future at Time 1 on meaningful work at Time 3 via the combination of career adaptability and competence need satisfaction at work at Time 2 was significant and positive (β = 0.03, SE = 0.02, 95% CI [0.00, 0.08]; Hypothesis 3). All significant indirect effects are in line with the CCMA. Results therefore support the three hypotheses.

Table 3.

Standardized Indirect Effects.

							95% CI indirect effect
Predictor		Mediator		Outcome	β	SE	Lower bound	Upper bound
Positive orientation toward future	→	Career adaptability	→	Competence need sataisfaction at work	0.26	0.11	0.07	0.49
Positive orientation toward future	→	Career adaptability	→	Meaningful work	0.31	0.09	0.16	0.5
Positive orientation toward future	→	Competence need satisfaction at work	→	Meaningful work	0.04	0.02	0.01	0.09
Career adaptability	→	Competence need satisfaction at work	→	Meaningful work	0.04	0.03	0.01	0.11
Positive orientation toward future	→	Career adaptability → competence need satisfaction at work	→	Meaningful work	0.03	0.02	0.00	0.08

Discussion

This three-wave longitudinal study tested the CCMA based on a sample of Afghan working adults amid the COVID-19 pandemic and before the current Taliban regime.

Results of the study contribute to theory and practice as discussed in the following sections.

Theoretical Contribution

Results make pertinent theoretical contributions. First, this three-wave longitudinal study is possibly the first to test the CCMA in a sample of working adults. Results indicate that Afghan working adults were successful in constructing their careers over 8 months from adaptive readiness to adaptation results. These results are partially in line with those of other longitudinal studies that tested the CCMA in student samples (cf. Guan et al., 2014; Šverko & Babarović, 2018; Zhuang et al., 2018). However, these results support those of previous cross-sectional studies based on students (e.g., Ochoco & Ty, 2021; Öztemel & Yıldız-Akyol, 2020) and working adults (e.g., Tokar et al., 2020). These cross-sectional studies have indicated that the indirect effect of adaptive readiness on adaptation results was significant via the combination of adaptability and adapting responses.

Second, the Broaden-and-Build Theory of positive emotions (Fredrickson, 2013) provides meaningful insights into the influence of positive orientation toward future on meaningful work over time via the combination of career adaptability and competence need satisfaction at work. In line with the theory, hope and optimism as positive emotions may expand/broaden Afghan employees’ thought-action repertoires to enable them to build essential personal resources over time for demonstrating career adaptability as well as performing effectively and efficiently to satisfy their need for competence at work. Next, the personal resources apparent in career adaptability and competence need satisfaction at work may enable Afghan employees to experience work well-being in the form of meaningful work. This is likely because the cumulative positive emotional experiences (i.e., those brought about by hope and optimism) help in building personal resources towards continued self-growth for attaining long-term well-being and excellence in life (Fredrickson, 2001). This research demonstrates the significance of positive orientation toward future in providing Afghan working adults a solid first step for embarking on their career construction journey to meaningful work during the pandemic.

Third, results of the serial mediation model indicate that hope and optimism as distal indicators of adaptive readiness can predict much beyond career adaptability. Findings imply that possessing career adaptability may not be sufficient for furthering meaningful work, as fulfilling the need for competence at work may also be necessary for advancing meaningful work. It is relevant to note that the need for competence at work is satisfied when employees are able to handle challenges to demonstrate effective performance and are acknowledged and appreciated for their competence or skilled performance (Deci et al., 2001). Satisfaction of the psychological need for competence at work may enable individuals to experience or realize that their work is significant, fosters personal development, and has a broader impact on others over time (Steger et al., 2012).

Lastly, research on vocational psychology is sparse from Afghanistan. This study is in all likelihood the first to examine the career construction of working adults in Afghanistan. It provides unique insights into how the Afghan collective culture may support working adults’ career self-management in times of instability, hopelessness, and tumult. Also, this study demonstrates the applicability of the CCMA to challenging, complex, and harsh conditions, such as the COVID-19 pandemic as well as the social, economic, and political conditions of the war-ravaged Afghanistan. As such, this study provides meaningful evidence of the broad scope and utility of the CCMA.

Relevance of Career Construction to the Current Political Situation

The adaptation process from positive orientation toward future at Time 1 to meaningful work at Time 3 may be important for Afghan employees in the current political situation as well. However, considering the changes made by the current Taliban government, more time, efforts, and resilience may be required by Afghan employees to construct their careers. Due to the severity of the current situation, hope may be instrumental for identifying strategies for career development and sustaining motivation for their effective implementation (Magyar-Moe et al., 2015) and optimism may foster resilience and perseverance for realizing future goals and aspirations (Ginevra et al., 2017). Furthermore, career adaptability may be pertinent for Afghan working adults in the current political situation. According to the CCT, career adaptability resources are triggered in time of need to effectively address unexpected circumstances or challenges (Savickas, 2005, 2013). In addition, Afghan women in most sectors have been restricted from working by the Taliban government (Najafizada, 2021). In such circumstances, demonstrating career adaptability may be of great value. Several studies have indicated that career adaptability resources comprise a protective factor to shield against adverse professional circumstances as well as embody a pertinent resource to effectively handle career transitions and traumatic situations, such as unemployment (Maggiori et al., 2013; Rossier, 2015).

Practice Implications

Results indicate the importance of career adaptation for Afghan working adults based on the four variables. However, keeping in view the present political turmoil, we recommend different strategies to assist them in their career construction efforts as discussed in the following paragraphs.

Human development specialists, career professionals, and career training interventionists abroad may need to collaborate to implement online training interventions for Afghan working adults. For instance, interventions focusing on fostering a sense of personal control may be quite worthwhile in the current circumstances. This is likely because a greater sense of personal control is linked to greater adaptability in the world of work (cf. Duffy, 2010). Career interventions focusing on developing proactive personality and career adaptability (cf. Green et al., 2020a) as well as personal growth and environmental mastery (cf. Green, 2020) may also be worth considering. We recommend imparting the training interventions through the emotionalized learning experiences (ELE) format (cf. (Green, 2021a; Green et al., 2020b). ELE integrate affective outcomes into the teaching–learning process based on the intervention content (Green, 2019a) imparted through experiential learning activities (cf. Green, 2019b, 2021b). In essence, affective outcomes provide positive emotional experiences to make learning more self-directed, permanent, and gratifying (Green et al., 2021b; Green & Batool, 2017) and as such inspire learners to apply the lessons learned to their unique contexts (cf. Green, 2021a).

Furthermore, career counselors may need to carefully examine the extent to which the external factors arising from the political turmoil are beyond the control of working adults so that appropriate strategies may be implemented to help them. In case the external factors are uncontrollable, then counseling sessions may need to focus on helping Afghan working adults to re-evaluate their careers so that other avenues may be considered (Duffy & Dik, 2009). Further, career construction counseling may focus on enhancing personal insight, nurturing optimism, fostering exploratory behaviors, bolstering self-efficacy beliefs, and improving self-esteem (Hartung & Cadaret, 2017).

Additionally, humanitarian assistance agencies may play an important role in empowering local women by directly hiring or retaining them to assist in development projects pertaining to their communities. For many Afghan women, this may be an opportunity to satisfy their need for competence at work as well as find meaning in their work by serving their communities (Foster & Markham, 2021).

Limitations and Future Research

This study has some limitations that future research may address. First, results are limited to the specific study variables reflecting the components of the CCMA. As mentioned earlier, there is a huge scope for testing the model. To increase its application and generalizability, we recommend testing the CCMA based on different contexts, populations, and time-lag designs in addition to using different constructs to represent adaptivity, adapting responses, and adaptation results.

Second, this study was based on Afghan working adults who represent the urban, prosperous, and educated segment of the population. As such, its generalizability is restricted to this particular segment. Future research may focus on working adults belonging to other segments of the society. In this regard, in-person paper surveys may need to be conducted as the majority of working adults in other segments may not be educated enough and/or have the technology to complete the surveys online.

Third, this contribution used the global scales of positive orientation toward future, career adaptability, and meaningful work to provide a straightforward and clear understanding of the career construction process of Afghan employees over time. Future research may take into consideration the subscales of the constructs of the CCMA.

Fourth, the study variables were not collected at each time point; therefore, causal inferences cannot be made. However, this data collection strategy was able to address the limitation in common method bias. Future research may be based on the novel methods of testing longitudinal mediation models, which incorporate variables collected at each time point (Mulder & Hamaker, 2020). Of note is that these state-of-the-art methods may be daunting and challenging to execute when multiple mediators and multiple outcomes are included in the longitudinal analysis, but to confirm variable causality, these may need to be applied (Duffy et al., 2021).

Lastly, the self-response measures used in this study may have introduced a response bias because of social desirability. In the future, a mixed-method study may be used in which the qualitative component may be designed to provide useful insights into how the CCMA may apply to the present political turmoil based on capturing participants’ personal thoughts and views. A qualitative study may also be conducted for identifying strategies for improving Afghan employees’ career adaptation process in the current political situation.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to all the study participants for bringing the study to fruition. The invaluable comments of Dr. Ryan Duffy and the two anonymous reviewers on the manuscript draft are deeply appreciated. Our special thanks to İlhan Çiçek, Farkhonda Faizi, Mohammad Nawaz Hashemi, and Zarifa Zadran for their support during the study.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical Approval

The research protocol was submitted for consideration, comment, guidance, and approval to the Preston University Research Ethics Committee. All procedures performed in the study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. This manuscript has not been published elsewhere and that it has not been submitted simultaneously for publication elsewhere.

ORCID iDs

Zane Asher Green

Murat Yıldırım

References

Brown

T. A

. (2006). Confirmatory factor analysis for applied research. New York, NY: Guildford.

Bryant

F. B.

Cvengros

J. A.

(2004). Distinguishing hope and optimism: Two sides of a coin, or two separate coins? Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 23(2), 273–302. https://doi.org/10.1521/jscp.23.2.273.31018

Christakis

N. A.

Fowler

J. H.

(2009). Social network visualizations in epidemiology. Norwegian Journal of Epidemiology, 19(1), 5–16. https://doi.org/10.5324/nje.v19i1.6

Cousins

(2020). Afghanistan braced for second wave of COVID-19-World Report. The Lancet, 396(10264), 1716–1717. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)32529-0

Deci

E. L.

Ryan

R. M.

(2000). The “what” and “why” of goal pursuits: Human needs and the self-determination of behavior. Psychological Inquiry, 11(4)227–268. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327965PLI1104_01

Deci

E. L.

Ryan

R. M.

Gagné

Leone

D. R.

Usunov

Kornazheva

B. P.

(2001). Need satisfaction, motivation, and well-being in the work organizations of a former eastern bloc country: A cross-cultural study of self-determination. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27(8), 930–942. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167201278002

Fabio A.

(2012). Evaluation of the effectiveness of the New Career Construction Genogram. Cypriot Journal of Educational Sciences, 7(4), 287-297.

Di Maggio

Montenegro

Little

T. D.

Nota

Ginevra

M. C.

(2021). Career adaptability, hope, and life satisfaction: An analysis of adults with and without substance use disorder. Journal of Happiness Studies. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-021-00405-1

Dixon

W. J.

Tukey

J. W.

(1968). Approximate behavior of the distribution of Winsorized t (Trimming/Winsorization 2). Technometrics, 10(1), 83–98. https://doi.org/10.1080/00401706.1968.10490537

10.

D’raven

L. L.

Pasha-Zaidi

(2016). Using the PERMA model in the United Arab Emirates. Social Indicators Research, 125(3), 905–933. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-015-0866-0

11.

Duffy

R. D.

(2010). Sense of control and career adaptability among undergraduate students. Journal of Career Assessment, 18(4), 420–430. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072710374587

12.

Duffy

R. D.

Dik

B. J.

(2009). Beyond the self: External influences in the career development process. The Career Development Quarterly, 58(1)29–43. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2161-0045.2009.tb00171.x

13.

Duffy

R. D.

Prieto

C. G.

Kim

H. J.

Raque-Bogdan

T. L.

Duffy

N. O.

(2021). Decent work and physical health: A multi-wave investigation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 127(1), Article 103544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2021.103544

14.

Ferrari

Ginevra

M. C.

Santilli

Nota

Sgaramella

T. M.

Soresi

(2015). Career Exploration and occupational knowledge in Italian children. International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance, 15(2), 113–130. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10775-015-9299-1

15.

Ferreira

(2014) Career meta-competencies in the retention of employees. In Coetzee

(Ed.), Psycho-social career meta-capacities (pp. 175–195). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-00645-1_10

16.

Forrier

Sels

(2003). The concept employability: a complex mosaic. International Journal of Human Resources Development and Management, 3(2), 102–124. https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1504/ijhrdm.2003.002414

17.

Foster

Markham

(2021). Afghanistan: A way forward for women and girls. Retrieved from https://www.justsecurity.org/78844/afghanistan-a-way-forward-for-women-and-girls/ (Accessed 5 January 2022)

18.

Fredrickson

B. L.

(2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56(3), 218–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.218

19.

Fredrickson

B. L.

(2013). Positive emotions broaden and build. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 47, 1-53. https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1016/B978-0-12-407236-7.00001-2

20.

Ginevra

M. C.

Sgaramella

T. M.

Ferrari

Nota

Santilli

Soresi

(2017). Visions about future: A new scale assessing optimism, pessimism, and hope in adolescents. International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance, 17(2), 187–210. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10775-016-9324-z

21.

Green

Z. A.

(2019a). Emotionalized learning experiences: Inspiring students in Pakistan to reinvent themselves to nurture social competence. Journal of College Student Development, 60(3), 337–360. https://doi.org/10.1353/csd.2019.0030

22.

Green

Z. A.

(2019b). Multiple intelligences mediate generalized self-efficacy and academic achievement. Baltic Journal of Psychology, 20(1, 2), 34–51. https://doi.org/10.22364/bjp.20.01-02

23.

Green

Z. A.

(2020). The mediating effect of well-being between generalized self-efficacy and vocational identity development. International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance, 20(2), 215–241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10775-019-09401-7

24.

Green

Z. A.

(2021b). Fostering the X-Factor in Pakistan’s university students. Current Psychology, 40, 3073–3102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-019-00237-6

25.

Green

Z. A.

(2021a). Strengthening career adaptation among school teachers in Pakistan: Test of strengths-based career intervention imparted through emotionalized learning experiences. International Journal for Educational and Vocational Guidance . https://doi.org/10.1007/s10775-021-09502-2

26.

Green

Z. A.

(2022). Character strengths intervention for nurturing well‐being among Pakistan’s university students: A mixed‐method study. Applied Psychology: Health and Well-being, 14(1), 252–277. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12301

27.

Green

Z. A.

Batool

(2017). Emotionalized learning experiences: Tapping into the affective domain. Evaluation and Program. Planning, 62, 35–48. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evalprogplan.2017.02.004

28.

Green

Z. A.

Faizi

Jalal

Zadran

(2021a). Emotional support received moderates academic stress and mental well-being in a sample of Afghan university students amid COVID-19. International Journal of Social Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1177/00207640211057729

29.

Green

Z. A.

Noor

Ahmed

(2020b). The body-mind-spirit dimensions of wellness mediate dispositional gratitude and life satisfaction. Journal of Happiness Studies, 21(4), 3095–3119. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-019-00215-6

30.

Green

Z. A.

Noor

Ahmed

Himayat

(2021b). Validation of the Fear of COVID-19 Scale in a sample of Pakistan’s university students and future directions. Psychological Reports. https://doi.org/10.1177/00332941211016754

31.

Green

Z. A.

Noor

Hashemi

M. N.

(2020a). Furthering proactivity and career adaptability among university students: Test of intervention. Journal of Career Assessment, 28(3), 402–424. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072719870739

32.

Guan

Guo

Bond

M.H.

Cai

Zhou

Zhu

Wang

Liu

Wang

(2014). New job market entrants’ future work self, career adaptability and job search outcomes: examining mediating and moderating models. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 85(1), 136–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2014.05.003

33.

Hartung

P. J.

Cadaret

M. C.

(2017). Career adaptability: Changing self and situation for satisfaction and success. In Maree

(Ed.), Psychology of Career Adaptability, Employability and Resilience (pp. 15–28). Springer International Publishing.

34.

Hirschi

(2012). The career resources model: An integrative framework for career counsellors. British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 40(4), 369–383. https://.doi.org/10.1080/03069885.2012.700506

35.

Hirschi

Herrmann

Keller

A. C.

(2015). Career adaptivity, adaptability, and adapting: A conceptual and empirical investigation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 87, 1–10. https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1016/j.jvb.2014.11.008

36.

L. T.

Bentler

P. M.

(1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 6(1), 1–55. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705519909540118

37.

Islam

(2004). Sifarish, sycophants, power and collectivism: Administrative culture in Pakistan. International Review of Administrative Sciences, 70(2), 311–330. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020852304044259

38.

Jones

C. W

(2011). Economic, social, and political attitudes in the UAE: A comparison of Emirati and non-Emirati youth in Ras al Khaimah. In Paper Prepared for the Gulf Comparative Education Society (GCES) Symposium, Ras al Khaimah, UAE, March 16–17, 2011. Al Hamra Convention Center.

39.

Karademas

(2005). Health psychology: Theory and clinical practice. Typothito.

40.

Maggiori

Johnston

C. S.

Krings

Massoudi

Rossier

(2013). The role of career adaptability and work conditions on general and professional well-being. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83(3), 437–449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.07.001

41.

Maggiori

Rossier

Savickas

M. L.

(2017). Career adapt-abilities scale–short form (CAAS-SF): construction and validation. Journal of Career Assessment, 25(2), 312–325. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072714565856

42.

Magyar-Moe

J. L.

Owens

R. L.

Conoley

C. W.

(2015). Positive psychological interventions in counseling: What every counseling psychologist should know. The Counseling Psychologist, 43(4), 508–557. https://doi.org/10.1177/0011000015573776

43.

Merino-Tejedor

Hontangas

P. M.

Boada-Grau

(2016). Career adaptability and its relation to self-regulation, career construction, and academic engagement among Spanish university students. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 93, 92–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2016.01.005

44.

Mulder

J. D.

Hamaker

E. L.

(2020). Three extensions of the random intercept cross-lagged panel model. Structural Equation Modeling, 28(4), 638–648. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2020.1784738

45.

Najafizada

(2021). Taliban curbs on working women could cut Afghanistan’s GDP by 5%. Retrieved from https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2021-12-01/taliban-curbs-on-working-women-could-cut-afghanistan-s-gdp-by-5 (Accessed 3 January 2022)

46.

Niles

S. G.

Amundson

N. E.

Neault

R. A

(2011). Career flow: A hope-centered approach to career development. Pearson.

47.

Ochoco

M. S. A.

W. E. G.

(2021). Examining the Career Construction Model of Adaptation among Filipino senior high school students. Journal of Career Development. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/08948453211037011

48.

Öztemel

Yıldız-Akyol

(2020). From adaptive readiness to adaptation results: Implementation of student career construction Inventory and testing the career construction model of adaptation. Journal of Career Assessment, 29(1), 54–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072720930664

49.

Perera

H. N.

McIlveen

(2017). Profiles of career adaptivity and their relations with adaptability, adapting, and adaptation. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 98, 70–84. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2016.10.001

50.

Preacher

K. J.

Hayes

A. F.

(2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40(3), 879–891. https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.3758/BRM.40.3.879

51.

Rarick

Winter

Falk

Nickerson

Barczyk

(2013). Afghanistan’s younger, elite and educated population: A cultural assessment and possible implications for the economic and political future of the country. Global Journal of Management and Business Research, 13(4), 27–33.

52.

Rossier

(2015) Career adaptability and life designing. In Nota

Rossier

(Eds.), Handbook of the life design: From practice to theory and from theory to practice (pp. 153–167). Hogrefe Publishing.

53.

Rudolph

C. W.

Lavigne

K. N.

Zacher

(2017). Career adaptability: A meta-analysis of relationships with measures of adaptivity, adapting responses, and adaptation results. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 98, 17–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2016.09.002

54.

Santilli

Marcionetti

Rochat

Rossier

Nota

(2017). Career adaptability, hope, optimism, and life satisfaction in Italian and Swiss adolescents. Journal of Career Development, 44(1), 62–76. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894845316633793

55.

Savickas

M. L.

(2002). Reinvigorating the study of careers. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 61(3), 381–385. https://doi.org/10.1006/jvbe.2002.1880

56.

Savickas

M. L.

(2005). The Theory and practice of career construction. In Brown

S. D.

Lent

R. W.

(Eds), Career development and counseling: Putting theory and research to work (pp. 42–70).John Wiley & Sons Inc.

57.

Savickas

M. L.

(2013) Career construction theory and practice. In Brown

S. D.

Lent

R. W.

(Eds), Career development and counseling: Putting theory and research into work (2nd ed., pp. 147–183). Wiley.

58.

Savickas

M. L.

Porfeli

E. J.

(2012). The career adapt-abilities scale: Construction, reliability, and measurement equivalence across 13 countries. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 80(3), 744–747. https://.doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2012.01.011

59.

Savickas

M. L.

Porfeli

E. J.

Hilton

T. L.

Savickas

(2018). The student career construction inventory. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 106, 138–152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2018.01.009

60.

Scioli

Ricci

Nyugen

Scioli

E. R.

(2011). Its nature and measurement. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality, 3(2), 78–97. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020903

61.

Sheldon

K. M.

King

(2001). Why positive psychology is necessary. American Psychologist, 56(3), 216–217. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.56.3.216

62.

Steger

M. F.

Dik

B. J.

Duffy

R. D.

(2012). Measuring meaningful work: The work and meaning inventory (WAMI). Journal of Career Assessment, 20(3), 322–337. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072711436160

63.

Šverko

Babarović

(2018). Applying career construction model of adaptation to career transition in adolescence: A two-study paper. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 111, 59–73. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2018.10.011

64.

Tokar

D. M.

Savickas

M. L.

Kaut

K. P.

(2020). A test of the career construction theory model of adaptation in adult workers with Chiari malformation. Journal of Career Assessment, 28(3), 381–401. https://doi.org/10.1177/1069072719867733

65.

Yama

Nishioka

Horishita

Kawasaki

Taniguchi

(2007). A dual process model for cultural differences in thought. Mind & Society, 6(2), 143–172. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11299-007-0028-4

66.

Yildirim

Belen

(2019). The role of resilience in the relationships between externality of happiness and subjective well-being and flourishing: A structural equation model approach. Journal of Positive Psychology and Wellbeing, 3(1), 62–76.

67.

Youssef

C. M.

Luthans

(2007). Positive organizational behavior in the workplace: The impact of hope, optimism, and resilience. Journal of Management, 33(5), 774–800. https://doi.org/10.1177/0149206307305562

68.

Zhuang

She

Cai

Huang

Xiang

Wang

Zhu

(2018). Examining a sequential mediation model of Chinese university students’ well-being: A career construction perspective. Frontiers in Psychology, 9(593). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00593