Abstract
Sports have been frequently explored in cross-cultural studies, yet scant attention has been paid to female participation. Here we coded the occurrence of sports and related activities for males and females in the societies comprising the Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) probability sample. We then tested several predictions derived from evolutionary theory. As predicted, in all 50 societies with documented sports, there were more male sports than female sports; hunting and combat sports were almost exclusively male activities; and the sex difference in sports was greater in patriarchal than in nonpatriarchal societies. These results show that a robust sex difference in direct physical competition co-occurs with meaningful variation in its expression.
Keywords
A game can be defined as an organized activity where two or more sides compete to win according to agreed-upon rules (Chick, 1984; Guttmann, 2004; Roberts, Arth, & Bush, 1959). Games occur in most or all societies (Chick, 1984, 1998; Craig, 2002; Sutton-Smith & Roberts, 1981), and, from a cross-cultural perspective, they are the most extensively studied expressive, noninstrumental aspect of culture (Chick, 2000). Previous studies have revealed, for example, that games of chance are associated with supernatural involvement in human affairs (Roberts et al., 1959), combative games correlate with the frequency of homicide (Chick, Loy, & Miracle,1997) and warfare (Sipes, 1973; see also Chick et al.,1997; Schlegel & Herbert, 1989), and games of strategy are associated with the severity of child training (Roberts & Sutton-Smith, 1962) and societal complexity (Chick, 1998; Roberts et al., 1959; Roberts & Barry, 1976; Sutton-Smith & Roberts, 1970).
Surprisingly, the sex of game participants has received almost no attention in previous cross-cultural studies (but see Schlegel & Herbert, 1989). This neglect might be due to assumptions that only males substantially participate or that there is insufficient information available for coding participants’ sex in most societies. In any event, the present study is designed to redress this gap. In particular, we will systematically code participants’ sex in games and related activities for the 60 societies in the Human Relations Area Files (HRAF) probability sample (Lagacé, 1979; Naroll, 1967). We will then test predictions regarding sex differences in participation and attempt to link variation in sex differences to social structure.
For two reasons, our study focuses on games that require physical skill, which we hereafter call “sports” (see Loy & Coakley, 2007). First, sports are by far the most common kind of game across societies (Chick, 1998; Roberts et al., 1959; Roberts & Sutton-Smith, 1962). Second, the theoretical predictions regarding sex differences seem strongest for sports (see below). Nonetheless, we will code other kinds of games, and some of our predictions address them.
We note that Schlegel and Herbert (1989) assessed the occurrence and importance of competitive games for male and female adolescents in the 186 societies that comprise the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample (Murdock & White, 1969). They reported that competitive games for males were documented in 60% of societies, whereas competitive games for females occurred in 30% of societies. Although highly valuable, this study did not differentiate kinds of games (i.e., sports, games of chance, games of strategy) or report whether there were any societies where female participation was similar to or greater than male participation.
In the next section, we provide the theoretical rationale for a hypothesis of a pronounced sex difference in sports participation and develop specific predictions to test it. We conclude the Introduction with a section explaining why variation in sex differences can be predicted to correlate with social structure, especially the empowerment of women.
Sex Differences
Numerous functions for sports have been hypothesized, all of which appear mutually compatible (Chick, 1984; Lombardo, 2012; Schlegel & Herbert, 1989). However, from an evolutionary perspective (i.e., linked to survival and reproduction), three hypotheses seem plausible (Lombardo, 2012). First, sports may function as culturally invented courtship rituals that reliably advertise quality to the opposite sex (de Block & Dewitte, 2009; Miller, 2000). Second, sports may function as physical competitions for status, differing from unrestrained combat or warfare because they reduce the risk of physical harm to competitors and more publicly and efficiently reveal the competitors’ underlying competitive qualities (de Block & Dewitte, 2009; Faurie, Pontier, & Raymond, 2004; Lombardo, 2012; see also Miller, 2000). Third, sports may function to build skills necessary for physically demanding activities, especially combat, warfare, and hunting (e.g., Chick et al., 1997; Craig, 2002; Lombardo, 2012; Sipes, 1973).
To the extent that these hypotheses hold, especially the second and third hypotheses, it can be further hypothesized that, compared to girls and women, boys and men will, on average, have a far greater motivational predisposition to participate and monitor sports, especially sports involving combat-relevant skills and/or team play. This hypothesis follows from the following points. First, throughout human evolutionary history and during contemporary periods, men have been substantially more likely than women to engage in contests involving extreme physical aggression (Archer, 2009; Daly & Wilson, 1988; Walker, 2001), between-group raiding and warfare (Adams, 1983; Gat, 2006; Keeley, 1996), and cooperative hunting of large game (Marlowe, 2007; Murdock & Provost, 1973). Second, this history is revealed by pronounced sexual dimorphism in strength and related attributes (Lassek & Gaulin, 2009; Mayhew & Salm, 1990; Seiler, De Koning, & Foster, 2007). Similarly, men (but not women) possess secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., beards, pronounced jaws, deep voices) that function to threaten rivals (Neave & Shields, 2008; Puts, 2010). Third, another legacy of this history is a predisposition(s) to behaviorally prepare for physical contests, both individually and in groups. This is indicated by the fact that in all societies studied so far, boys engage in more rough-and-tumble play and play-fighting (DiPietro, 1981; Geary, 2010; Whiting & Edwards, 1973, 1988). Studies also consistently indicate that boys are more likely to form large same-sex groups, to differentiate roles within such groups, and to seek competition with other groups (Geary, 2010; Lever, 1978; Rose & Rudolph, 2006). Fourth, several kinds of evidence indicate that these sex-differentiated play patterns are due, at least in part, to boys’ typically greater exposure to androgens prior to birth (Berenbaum & Beltz, 2011).
There is considerable evidence for the hypothesis that males have an inborn predisposition to be interested in sports. First, studies in large contemporary societies ubiquitously report greater male interest in participating, watching, and excelling in sports. Evidence comes from self-reports of interest (summarized in Ellis et al., 2008) and from actual participation (e.g., Larson & Verma, 1999; Lunn, 2010; Stamatakis & Chaudhury, 2008). There is even a large sex difference in sports interest and participation in the contemporary United States, a society where great efforts have been made to equalize opportunities for females (Deaner et al., 2012). Second, females with congenital adrenal hyperplasia (a disease characterized by heightened prenatal androgen exposure) are more likely than typical females to show strong interest in stereotypically masculine sports (Berenbaum, 1999; Berenbaum & Snyder, 1995; Frisén et al., 2009). Third, historical reviews of sports in large, literate societies document that many societies had substantial female participation, but males are reported as being substantially more involved in most or all cases (Craig, 2002; Guttmann, 1991, 2004). Finally, as noted above, cross-cultural ethnographic studies of sports appear consistent with the prediction of greater male participation (e.g., Chick, 1984, 1998; Chick et al., 1997; Roberts et al., 1959; Sipes, 1973), and this is true of the one study that provided the most direct evidence (Schlegel & Herbert, 1989).
For the present study, it would be desirable to obtain data on the frequency of sports participation, but this cannot be extracted from ethnographic materials. Instead, we will focus on documenting the number of games and sports described in each society and whether males, females, or both regularly participate. To address the possibility that a larger number of male games might merely reflect ethnographers focusing more attention on males, we will also code nonsport games and noncompetitive play activities (i.e., amusements: see Roberts et al., 1959; Schlegel & Herbert, 1989). If there is substantial ethnographer bias, the sex difference should be similar in sports and in these other activities.
Additional predictions can be derived from the hypothesis of an evolved male tendency to be interested in sports. First, the sex difference should be especially pronounced for combat sports, such as wrestling and boxing, and for hunting sports, such as archery and spear throwing. The basis for this prediction is that combat and hunting generally have been male activities during human evolutionary history (see above). Nonetheless, sports that do not involve actions directly related to combat or hunting are still expected to show greater male participation because males appear generally more predisposed to engage in direct competition of almost any kind (Campbell, 1999, 2002; Deaner, 2012; Niederle & Vesterlund, 2011). Furthermore, many sports that do not require actions patently used in combat or hunting require related skills. For example, baseball, although not a hunting or combat sport, involves running, overhand throwing, and tracking projectiles.
A second prediction is that the sex difference should be especially pronounced for sports involving physical contact between opponents. This prediction follows because combative sports invariably entail aggressive physical contact and even noncombat sports often involve this. Thus, males are expected to participate relatively more in sports involving physical contact, even after combat and hunting sports are excluded.
A third prediction is that the sex difference should be especially pronounced for team sports rather than individual sports. This prediction follows from the male predispositions hypothesis because team sports require both motivation to engage in physical competition and motivation to engage in cooperative group challenges, especially in between-group contexts. Both kinds of motivation apparently are greater in males (Campbell, 1999, 2002; Geary Byrd-Craven, Hoard, Vigil, & Numtee, 2003; Puts, 2010; Rose & Rudolph, 2006; van Vugt, 2009). However, individual sports require only one kind of motivation, whereas team sports require both, suggesting that the sex difference should be larger there.
Female Power
Although we anticipate that males’ sports participation will be substantially greater than females’ in most or all societies, there is evidence of appreciable female sports participation in many of them (Craig, 2002; Guttmann, 1991; Schlegel & Herbert, 1989). Although we know of no existing framework to predict the cross-cultural variation, the three functional hypotheses outlined above provide a useful starting point.
If sports function, first, as culturally invented courtship rituals (de Block & Dewitte, 2009; Miller, 2000) or, second, as physical competitions for status that publicly and efficiently reveal underlying competitive qualities (de Block & Dewitte, 2009; Faurie et al., 2004; Lombardo, 2012), then females might be expected to participate in sports more in societies where females compete more to be chosen as mates or to gain status. There is a problem with this hypothesis, however: The qualities females mainly advertise when seeking mates or competing for status are physical attractiveness (e.g., youthfulness, femininity, health) and personal integrity (e.g., good sexual reputation; Campbell, 1999, 2002; Cashdan, 1996; Schmitt & Buss, 1996), and these qualities do not seem emphasized in most sports, which generally involve direct (i.e., simultaneous) competition and potential physical contact. Indeed, playing sports is associated with greater attractiveness and higher status for males but not for females (Holland & Andre, 1994; see also Brewer & Howarth, 2012; Chase & Dummer, 1992). Similarly, physical dominance (a typical correlate of sport success) generally increases the attractiveness of men but not of women (Bryan, Webster, & Mahaffey, 2011; Sadalla, Kenrick, & Vershure, 1987). Although there are judged sports (e.g., figure skating, gymnastics, cheerleading) that emphasize physical attractiveness and do not involve direct competition, these sports apparently only occur in large nation-states and thus will be largely irrelevant for the HRAF probability sample.
The third functional hypothesis, that sports function to build skills needed for physically demanding activities, might also seem improbable for explaining cross-societal variation female sports. The reason is that this hypothesis was developed by evolutionarily oriented scholars in reference to warfare and cooperatively hunting large game (e.g., Chick et al., 1997; Lombardo, 2012; Sipes, 1973), and females rarely participate in these activities in any society (Adams, 1983; Gat, 2006; Keeley, 1996; Marlowe, 2007; Murdock & Provost, 1973). Nonetheless, if this hypothesis is conceived more broadly, namely that sports foster skills for physically or socially demanding activities, then it becomes quite plausible (see Schlegel & Herbert, 1989). In fact, in large societies with organized sports, both historical and contemporary, there have been countless claims that sports promote physical and social development, including “building character” (e.g., Guttmann, 2004; Eccles, Barber, Stone, & Hunt, 2003). Although it has proven difficult to establish causal relationships, many studies document that sports participation correlates with a variety of positive outcomes outside of the sporting arena, and this holds for both males and females (Eccles et al., 2003; Rees & Sabia, 2010; Stevenson, 2010).
This “sports as training” hypothesis generates the prediction that female sports participation should be relatively greater in nonpatriarchal than in patriarchal societies. The logic for this prediction is that patriarchal societies can be generally considered low in female power, which can be defined as the capacity for women to control resources and exert political influence (Low, 1992; Yanca & Low, 2004). We will define patriarchal societies as those characterized by both patrilocality and patrilineality (Yanca & Low, 2004; see also Hrdy, 1999; Low, 1992; Smuts, 1995).
Methods
We used the electronic HRAF materials (eHRAF: http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu) and focused on the probability sample of 60 societies. The probability sample is a cross-cultural sample designed to ensure representative coverage of traditional and peasant cultures of the world. Its developers randomly selected one well-described culture from each of 60 world regions (Lagacé, 1979; Naroll, 1967). We searched with three Outline of Cultural Materials (OCM) codes: 524-games, 525-gambling, and 526-athletic sports. For each society, we included information from all time periods and resources in HRAF. We did this to maximize the number of potentially coded activities and because it was often unclear from what time period the patriarchy information was derived from. Including information from all time periods means that some coded activities might seem unusual for a particular society (e.g., baseball in Copper Inuit).
We obtained data on descent (patrilineality) and residence (patrilocality) from Levinson and Wagner (1986). We classified a society as patriarchal if it was coded as both patrilineal and patrilocal; any other combination (e.g., matrilineal, neolocal; bilateral, patrilocal) was classified as nonpatriarchal.
Activity Coding
We followed Roberts and colleagues (1959; see also Chick, 1984, 1998) in defining games and kinds of games. A game was defined as an organized activity where two or more sides compete to win according to agreed-upon rules. A game of chance was defined as one whose outcome depends entirely on nonrational guesses or the operation of a mechanical device, such as a die or a spinning top. A game of strategy was defined as one that depends on players’ moves (choices among alternatives), although it may also involve chance; examples include chess and poker. A sport was defined as a game that depends on physical skill, although it may also involve chance or strategy. We counted guessing games (“hide the moccasin”) as games of chance, despite that they may involve bluffing or assessing body language.
For the sake of comparison, we also coded the occurrence of three activities that bear similarities to games. These were sham combats, duels, and amusements. Following Chick and Loy (2001), we defined a sham combat as a combat-like activity that does not meet the definition of a game because there are no criteria for determining a winner. We defined a duel as a formalized competition between two individuals that is undertaken to formally determine status or honor and purposely features the potential for lethal violence. Because we only documented four cases of sham combats and one duel (all with only male participants; see Appendix), we did not analyze them here.
We defined amusements as recreational or play activities that do not meet the above definition of a game. Examples include hide and seek, playing house, tag, sledding, and jumping rope (see Roberts et al., 1959; Schlegel & Herbert, 1989). Amusements potentially could be defined very broadly and thus might entail nearly boundless coding effort. Therefore, we focused on children’s amusements involving physical activity. For example, we did not code (noncompetitive) adult dances, courtship rituals, or verbal games.
In some cases, two or more described activities were highly similar or even were explicitly described as being variations of the same game or activity. In such cases, we considered these activities to be one activity. We generally only coded activities that were described with sufficient detail to be confidently classified as an amusement, sham combat, duel, game of skill, game of luck, or a sport. However, when an ethnographer labeled (but did not describe in detail) an activity as being identical to one that occurs in large nation-states, we considered the label to be sufficient for classification. Examples included “hide and seek,” chess, and ice hockey. We only coded activities where the ethnographer had indicated they had observed an activity that was common in the community. The participants’ sex in some coded activities could not be determined; although this information was retained, these activities were not analyzed in this study and are not included in the Appendix.
Sport Coding
Among sports, we made several classifications. First, we classified each sport as a combat sport, a hunting sport, or “other” (see Chick & Loy, 2001; Chick et al., 1997; Sipes, 1973). A combat sport was defined here as one emphasizing actions that would occur during actual combat for the purpose of subjugating an opponent and/or inflicting substantial physical harm. The most frequently occurring combat sports were wrestling (24 occurrences), boxing (7), and stick fighting (4; see Appendix). Sports such as arm wrestling and tug of war were not classified as combat sports because their actions are not generally employed in combat.
A hunting sport was defined as one involving actions and equipment that would occur during hunting (or possibly combat) in that society. The most popular one was archery (19) with nearly all the others involving throwing darts, stones, sticks, or spears. In all cases, the target could not be another person; if it was, the sport was considered a combat sport. Actions involving equipment substantially different than that which would be used in hunting were not considered hunting sports. For example, the sport played in many contemporary societies, often in pubs, where small darts are thrown at a hanging target would not be considered a hunting sport.
“Other” sports included a broad range of activities; the most frequently occurring were foot race (10) football/soccer (8), tug of war (7), baseball (6), boat race (6), hockey (6), marbles (6), darts (5), and shinny (5). Although some of these sports undoubtedly require skills that would be relevant for combat or hunting (see Sipes, 1973), they were not classified as combat or hunting unless they met the definitions above.
We also classified sports according to whether they included physical contact. In contact sports, individuals make direct bodily contact with an opponent (e.g., American football, rugby, arm wrestling, tug of war, hair-pulling contest) or else make contact with an opponent’s body with a projectile (e.g., rock throwing) or implement (e.g., stick fighting). All combat sports were classified as including physical contact. Sports where participants make contact with a common object but do not regularly direct it towards an opponent’s body (e.g., tennis) were not considered contact sports. Among sports with physical contact, we further classified them as requiring contact, frequently involving contact, or rarely involving contact. Examples of sports requiring contact are noted earlier in this paragraph. Examples of sports frequently involving contact were football (or soccer), basketball, lacrosse, and hockey. An example of a sport rarely involving contact is baseball (or softball); pitchers may target hitters or runners may deliberately collide with fielders, but these events are rare.
We also classified sports and games according to whether they were individual or team sports. Team sports required that two or more individuals compete against one or more opposing teams. In some societies, the same general sport activity is described as occurring among individuals and teams. In these cases, we classified it as both an individual sport and a team sport. All sports could be classified as team, individual, or both, save canoe racing in the Andaman.
We initially sought to code activities according to whether they were done by children, adolescents, adults, or by more than one age group. However, we found that there was often insufficient information to make such a determination. Thus, the analyses below pool individuals of all ages.
Variation Across Societies
To assess variation in sex differences in sports across societies, we calculated what we call the ratio of female to male sports (hereafter F:M sports), which is defined as the number of female sports (female-only sports plus sports played by both males and females) divided by the number of male sports (male-only sports plus ones played by both males and females). The F:M sports could be calculated for 50 societies and varied from 0 to 0.57.
Reliability
Initial coding was done independently by the two authors. Agreement was modest for identification of candidate activities of all kinds (i.e., amusements, sham combats, duels, games of chance, games of strategy, sports): ROD coded 473 activities, BAS coded 458, and 334 were common to both; nearly all of the common ones were included in the final list of 509 activities (see Appendix). Most disagreements involved, in descending order, the identification of amusements, distinguishing amusements from sports, or deciding whether two similar activities, especially games of chance, should be considered separate activities. The disagreements were resolved by discussion, usually involving the review of original materials.
For the 178 activities that were initially classified as sports by both coders, there was good agreement on sex (male, female, both) in 161 cases (Cohen’s κ = .86). All disagreements involved whether a sport should be classified as involving participation by both males and females, rather than only males or only females; in other words, there were no cases where one coder initially classified a sport as exclusively done by males while the other coder initially classified it as exclusively done by females. Initial agreement for sex was good to moderate for mutually classified amusements (n = 121, κ = .91), games of chance (n = 15, κ = .70), and games of strategy (n = 20, κ = .78). There were again no cases of where one coder initially classified a sport as exclusively done by males while the coder initially classified a sport as exclusively done by females. For the 178 activities that were initially classified as sports by both coders, classification as individual, team, or both was good (κ = .89). Again, all disagreements were resolved by discussion. Both coders initially classified sports as hunting, combat, or “other” sports, and as involving various levels of physical contact. However, we refined these definitions after the completion of independent coding and revised the final codes accordingly.
Validity
After completion of our coding, we discovered that the eHRAF database provided opportunities to assess the validity of our sport coding. In particular, we used the advanced search function to obtain the total number of paragraphs in each society coded as including information about “athletic sports” (OCM code 526) and also containing one of the following words: “male,” “men,” “man,” “boy,” or “boys.” We did the same for athletic sports and the corresponding female words. The HRAF coding does not indicate who, if anyone, is participating in the athletic sport(s) referenced in the paragraph and can sometimes be misleading. For instance, the paragraph might state that males in society X never participate in sport Y or that the main spectators (not participants) in sport Y are male whereas the participants are female. Nonetheless, our impression is that this sort of incongruence was uncommon and that, in general, if a society had many more male than female sports paragraphs, males generally were much more involved in sports.
The coding of athletic sports was done by HRAF employees to facilitate efficient searching and thus is fully independent from our coding and hypothesis development. The OCM code definition for athletic sports was conceptually similar to ours but broader: “Forms of exercise (e.g., hiking, swimming, skating, skiing, riding, mountain climbing, calisthenics, gymnastics); sports of pursuit (e.g., hide and seek, paper chases); individual contests (e.g., foot races, jumping, weight lifting, boxing, wrestling, archery, hoop and dart game, javelin throwing, trap shooting, bowling, tennis, golf); team contests (e.g., tug of war, boat races, lacrosse, hockey, football, baseball, basketball, polo); occasions; participants and spectators; special equipment; rules; associated ideas (e.g., sportsmanship, amateur status, value of physical fitness); organizers and sponsors of sports (e.g., clubs, schools, business organizations, promoters); etc.”
If our sport codes are valid, then the F:M sports will positively correlate with the ratio of female sports paragraphs to male sports paragraphs, what we call the F:M sports paragraphs. A significant positive correlation would constitute evidence for convergent validity (Campbell & Fiske, 1959).
In addition, if the sport codes are valid, then the F:M sports should not positively correlate with a measure of recreational noncompetitive social involvement. To test this we obtained the total number of paragraphs in each society coded as including information about “conversation” (OCM code 521) and either male or female words (see above). We thus calculated the F:M conversation paragraphs. If the F:M sports does not significantly correlate with F:M conversation paragraphs, this would be evidence of discriminant validity (Campbell & Fiske, 1959). The OCM code definition for conversation was “Loquacity and reserve; boasting and shyness; conversational patterns (e.g., idle chatter, rambling discourse, discussion, argument); occasions and places; participants; typical subjects (e.g., weather, news, gossip, politics); privilege and unprivileged communications; etc.”
We can also test the validity of our results (and hence, of our sport codes) by testing the prediction about sex differences using the paragraph measures. In particular, there should be many more male sports paragraphs than female sports paragraphs. By contrast, the sex difference in conversation paragraphs should be nonexistent or substantially smaller.
Statistics
All analyses were conducted using two-tailed statistical tests.
Results
We documented 248 sports where the sex of participants was known. The most frequently occurring sports are noted in the Methods section. Most sports showed similarities with those found in large contemporary societies but were distinctive enough that we retained their unique names and/or briefly described them. The Appendix provides names or descriptions for each documented sport as well as the sex of participants and the other variables we analyzed (society where documented, kind of sport, physical contact, individual or team). The Appendix provides similar information for games of strategy, games of chance, amusements, duels, and sham combats.
Sex Differences in Activities
Of the 248 sports, both males and females participated in 37, only females participated in 13, and only males participated in 198 (Table 1). Thus, males were participants in 95% of sports, whereas females were participants in 20%. A similar sex difference in participation was found for the 30 games of strategy we documented (Table 1): Males were participants in 100% of them, whereas females were participants in 20%. The sex difference was smaller for the 30 documented games of chance (Table 1): Males were participants in 87% of them whereas females were participants in 73%. There was no appreciable sex difference for the 195 documented amusements (Table 1); males were participants in 69% of them, whereas females were participants in 72%.
Participants’ Sex as a Function of Activity.
When we considered each society as the unit of analysis, this pattern of sex differences generalized (Table 2). In particular, there were 50 societies with at least one male sport documented and 21 societies with at least one female sport documented. Moreover, males participated in more sports than females in all 50 societies where at least one sport was documented. This pattern differs significantly from the null hypothesis that there would be the same number of societies with more male sports as societies with more female sports (binomial test, p < .0001). In the 19 societies with at least one documented game of strategy, males participated more in 15 societies, and there were no societies where females participated more (p < .0001). In the 17 societies with at least one documented game of chance, males participated in more in six societies and females participated in more in three societies (p = .25). In the 47 societies with at least one documented amusement, males participated more in 14 societies and females participated more in 21 societies (p = .08).
Patriarchy and Participants’ Sex for Activities in 60 Cultures.
Note: F = female; M = male; B = both; Y = patriarchal; N = nonpatriarchal.
Validity
As predicted, the F:M sports measure based on our coding was positively correlated with the F:M sports paragraphs measure derived from the established HRAF codes. The relationship was strong when we considered societies with at least three documented sports, r(29) = .52, p = .002, and became even stronger when we considered those with at least four documented sports, r(23) = .70, p = .0001.
Also as predicted, F:M sports was not positively correlated with F:M conversation paragraphs. This was true when considering societies with at least three documented sports, r(29) = –.10, p = .62, or at least four documented sports, r(23) = –.01, p = .96.
Also as expected, the sex difference we found for the number of coded sports was largely replicated when we considered sex-specific athletic sports paragraphs. There were 742 male-specific sports paragraphs and 322 female-specific sports paragraphs, a ratio of 2.3 to 1. By contrast, there were 631 male-specific conversation paragraphs, and 443 female-specific conversation paragraphs, a ratio of 1.42 to 1.
Combat and Hunting Sports
We documented 57 combat sports, and at least one occurred in 34 societies. Males were the exclusive participants in 55 combat sports, whereas both males and females participated in two cases (Table 3). We documented 36 hunting sports, and at least one occurred in 23 societies. Males were the exclusive participants in all cases. To confirm that this sex difference was not driven by a subset of societies, for each of the 21 societies with at least one female sport, we computed the percentage of female sports that involved combat or hunting and the percentage of male sports that involved combat or hunting. A paired t test confirmed that there was a difference, t(20) = 2.09, p < .05.
Participants’ Sex as a Function of Sport Type.
Physical Contact
We documented 76 sports that required physical contact, 32 with frequent contact, 13 with rare contact, and 127 without contact. Contrary to our prediction, there was no indication that this varied substantially by participants’ sex (Table 4). Most relevantly, 49% of sports with male participants involved physical contact of some kind, whereas 44% of sports with female participants did so.
Participants’ Sex as a Function of Physical Contact in Sport.
All 57 combat sports required physical contact, whereas none of the 36 hunting sports did, and males were the near exclusive participants in these kinds of sports. We therefore reexamined these patterns after excluding combat and hunting sports. For the remaining sports, 42% of those with male participants involved physical contact of some kind, and 42% of those with female participants involved physical contact of some kind.
Individual Versus Team Sports
We documented 144 sports that were played only by individuals, 91 played by teams, and 12 that were played by both individuals and teams. Contrary to our prediction, there was no substantial relationship between participants’ sex and whether the sport was an individual or team sport (Table 5). In particular, 59% of sports with male participants involved teams at least occasionally, whereas 50% of sports with female participants did so.
Participants’ Sex as a Function of Team or Individual Sport.
Of the 57 combat sports, 42 were classified as individual, 13 were team, and 2 were both; of the 36 hunting sports, 33 were individual and 3 were team. With combat and hunting sports excluded, 45% of sports with male participants involved teams at least occasionally, whereas 48% of sports with female participants did so.
Female Power
As predicted, F:M sports was significantly greater in nonpatriarchal than (M = 0.19, SD = 0.21) than patriarchal societies (M = .05, SD = 0.12), t(48) = 2.34, p = .024. Some societies had limited available information regarding recreational activities, and F:M sports might therefore include much random error because sports are poorly documented in that society. Supporting the idea that few documented sports reflect, in part, poor coverage, we found a significant positive correlation across societies between the total number of amusements and the total number of sports documented, r(58) = .60, p < .0001. We therefore repeated our analyses after excluding the seven societies with only one documented sport. As shown in Figure 1, F:M sports was again significantly greater in nonpatriarchal than patriarchal societies, t(41) = 2.52, p = .016. Also, as expected, the effect size was slightly greater (d = 0.91) than when including all 50 societies with documented sports (d = 0.79)
Histograms of F:M sports for patriarchal and nonpatriarchal societies.
One concern about these comparisons is that F:M sports is skewed rightward, with a modal value of zero (Figure 1). We therefore repeated our comparisons using a binary classification, that is, whether or not female sports occurred. Again, patriarchal and nonpatriarchal societies differed significantly, χ2(1, n = 50) = 4.23, p = .039, and societies with at least two sports, χ2(1, n = 43) = 4.95, p = .026.
Discussion
This study had three main findings. First, there was a large overall sex difference in sports played, with 235 sports played by males and 50 played by females. Furthermore, males played more sports in all 50 societies with at least one documented sport. Second, the sex difference was pronounced for combat and hunting sports, with males being the exclusive participants in all 36 hunting sports, and 55 of 57 combat sports. Third, the sex difference in sports played was smaller in nonpatriarchal societies. Before considering the theoretical significance of these findings, we examine their potential limitations.
Limitations
The quality of coding is an important consideration in cross-cultural studies, but we took steps to address this issue. First, to promote precision and reliability, as our measure of participation we counted the number of well-described games, rather than using a binary classification (i.e., sports occurred or not) or more subjective judgments (e.g., importance to participants; Schlegel & Herbert, 1989). Although our explorations of interobserver reliability indicated appreciable error in identifying sports, the coding reliability of participants’ sex was good (κ = .86). We are thus confident that anyone using our methods would obtain substantially similar results. Second, we demonstrated the validity of our sports coding by showing that, across societies, the ratio of female sports to male sports (i.e., F:M sports) correlated substantially with the ratio of female-to-male HRAF-coded sports paragraphs (e.g., r = .70) but not with the ratio of female-to-male HRAF-coded conversation paragraphs (e.g., r = –.01). Similarly, the overall sex difference we found for coded sports was also replicated in the number of sex-specific sports paragraphs.
Another potential concern is that ethnographers may have frequently overlooked females’ sports participation. This is plausible but difficult to test. We did show, however, that there was no sex difference in the number of amusements. Similarly, the sex difference in sports paragraphs was substantially greater than the sex difference in conversation paragraphs. Thus, if the ethnographic record is biased, it is biased in a specific way, one that fits evolutionarily derived predictions quite well.
A third potential concern is that females might participate in fewer sports yet might play more frequently or in a somehow more meaningful way. Although this may be true in some cases, it is very unlikely to hold generally. This is because in cases where both males and females participated in a sport, there were often clear statements that males played more frequently or formally (e.g. baseball in Chuuk: Gladwin & Sarason, 1953; foot races in Ona: Chapman, 1982). Similarly, we noted several examples of sports that were described as having great social significance, with most or all of a community paying close attention; in all cases, all participants were men (e.g., lacrosse in Iroquois: Beauchamp, 1896; dart throwing in Tikopia: Firth, 1930; hockey in Mataco: Alvarsson, 1988).
Although we do not believe that the number of sports overestimates the sex difference in sports participation, this measure could be biased in addressing other questions. For example, we found no support for the predictions that males play proportionally more games with teams or featuring physical contact, yet we suspect that these predictions would be supported if better measures of participation were available (see Deaner et al., 2012).
There are genuine limitations of our investigation of female power. One is the possibility that our result is due to chance. This is plausible because even in the most favorable test for the prediction, the p value did not far surpass significance (p = .016, two-tailed). A second potential limitation is the statistical nonindependence of societies (Borgerhoff Mulder, 2001; Chick, 2000; Nunn, 2011). In future studies, this issue should be addressed with formal phylogenetic comparative methods. Finally, the codes for residence and descent (Levinson & Wagner, 1986) that were the basis for our patriarchy classification might include substantial error. Although we are unaware of problems with these particular codes, inaccuracies have been shown for other cross-cultural residence codes (Alvarez, 2004; see also Hill et al., 2011).
A Universal Sex Difference
Despite their enormous variability, all human societies exhibit many universal (or “near-universal”) characteristics, and several involve sex differences (Brown, 1991). Examples include women doing more primary childcare (Gray & Anderson, 2010; Marlowe, 2000) and men engaging in more same-sex physical aggression (Archer, 2009; Daly & Wilson, 1988). Could greater male participation in sports be another universal?
The results of this article constitute the most direct test of this hypothesis, and, although based on only 50 societies, they are clearly supportive. Moreover, as reviewed in Introduction, all previous cross-societal and historical studies, although not designed to address this question, appear fully consistent with it. It also is relevant that, despite anthropologists’ penchant for celebrating the exotic (Brown, 1991), none apparently has found a society where females play sports as frequently as males do. Indeed, one apparent candidate does not hold up: Among the Khasi, a matrilineal society, women were significantly more competitive than men in a high-stakes ball-tossing experiment, a pattern that differs from that found in several other societies (Gneezy, Leonard, & List, 2009); however, the ethnographic materials indicate that only males regularly play sports in this society (Table 2).
The case for a universal sex difference seems especially strong for hunting and combat sports. In our sample, females did not participate in any hunting sports and in only two combat sports, and neither poses a strong challenge to the claim of universality: Among the Aymara, boys and girls were noted as often wrestling but without formalized rules (Tschopik, 1946); among the Chukchee, women wrestle but with less preparation, ritual, and formality than the men (Bogoraz-Tan, 1909). We have also searched for additional evidence of women’s combat sports in HRAF societies outside the probability sample. Although we have found several additional cases, whenever there is substantial description, the corresponding male combat sport invariably is reported to occur more frequently and receive greater attention (e.g., wrestling in Tongans: Anderson, 1967).
What factors could explain the apparently universal sex difference in sports participation, at least for sports involving direct competition? One possibility is that females are, on average, equally interested in participating but they are unable to do so because they are discouraged, prohibited, or lack the time. Although these issues must be important in some cases, much data suggest they have limited general explanatory value. First, studies of large contemporary societies ubiquitously find that males self-report greater interest in participating, watching, and excelling in sports (Ellis et al., 2008). Moreover, in contemporary societies where many individuals, especially youths, have sufficient free time to watch television for several hours per day, the sex difference in participation remains strong (e.g., Larson & Verma, 1999; Lunn, 2010; Stamatakis & Chaudhury, 2008). Most tellingly, a recent study in the United States showed that although there is no reliable sex difference in the frequency of noncompetitive physical activity (i.e., exercise), males participate in sports more than 3 times as much as females, and this pattern holds even in sports such as soccer and basketball that require minimal facilities and equipment (Deaner et al., 2012).
Males’ apparently greater motivation to participate in sports is likely due to several factors. One view is that individual and intersexual variation in sports motivation is driven mainly or entirely by differential socialization. In other words, some individuals, particularly boys, are more likely to become interested in sports because they receive greater sports encouragement or opportunities (e.g., Fredricks & Eccles, 2005; Hogshead-Makar & Zimbalist, 2007). Although socialization seems undeniably important, there are few demonstrations that rule out alternative explanations. For example, if parents are less likely to enroll their daughters than their sons in soccer leagues, this can be interpreted as boys receiving greater sports encouragement or as reflecting that fewer young girls express early interest in this sort of activity (Lever, 1978; Sandberg & Meyer-Bahlburg, 1994). Likewise, similar valuation of sport by parents and their children fits a socialization view (Fredricks & Eccles, 2005), but it also might be ascribed to heritable genetic variation (e.g., Hur, McGue, & Iacono, 1996).
One factor known to contribute to males’ greater sports motivation is their typically greater exposure to androgens before birth (e.g., Berenbaum, 1999; Berenbaum & Snyder, 1995; Frisén et al., 2009; see also Berenbaum & Beltz, 2011). Because this difference is unlikely to be socially malleable, the sex difference in sports participation probably is a genuine societal universal. If corroborated, this universal sex difference would provide strong support for evolutionary models emphasizing the importance of male-male competition (Geary, 2010; Puts, 2010), including in sports (Lombardo, 2012). Of course, within each society this sex difference occurs only as a statistical generality, and many girls and women show high sports interest and many boys and men show minimal interest.
Variation Across Societies
Despite the consistent overall sex difference in sports participation observed in our sample, there was substantial variability in its magnitude, with no female sports occurring in many societies but several sports occurring in others. That such variation can be explained with a functional, evolutionary framework is suggested by the association between patriarchy and relatively fewer female sports: Apparently natural selection has produced mechanisms that allow individuals (e.g., parents) to calibrate and socialize others’ (e.g., their daughters) competitiveness to levels that are advantageous for their society (Gneezy et al., 2009; Low, 1989). As noted above, however, our patriarchy result should be corroborated with larger samples, phylogenetic comparative methods, and perhaps refined data on patriarchy. Variation in sex differences in sports participation also might be illuminated with more refined measures of female power, such as control of resources (Schlegel & Barry, 1986; Yanca & Low, 2004) or quantitative estimates of the number of kin and female allies present (Hill et al., 2011).
Our patriarchy result complements the finding that competitive games in adolescent females occur more frequently in societies that promote female competition (Schlegel & Herbert, 1989). More generally our result supports previous studies indicating the importance of female empowerment across societies (e.g., Hrdy, 1999; Smuts, 1995; Yanca & Low, 2004). For example, in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample, high female contribution to subsistence is associated with greater polygyny, more permissive attitudes toward premarital sex (Schlegel & Barry, 1986), and, in girls, greater inculcation of achievement and aggression and lesser inculcation of obedience (Low, 1989; see also Munroe, Hulefeld, Rodgers, Tomeo, & Yamazaki, 2000).
It has also been reported that, across contemporary nations, greater female empowerment correlates with a smaller sex difference in several aspects of mate preference (Eagly & Wood, 1999; Kasser & Sharma, 1999). This latter result has suggested to some that female empowerment, and the social roles they usually engender, might explain virtually all sex differences in motivations and preferences (i.e., social role theory: Eagly & Wood, 1999; Wood & Eagly, 2002), including in sports (Diekman & Eagly, 2000). However, there are reasons to question this interpretation. First, the cross-national associations of women’s empowerment and mating preferences are unreliable (Gangestad, Haselton, & Buss, 2006). Second, sex differences in some preferences seem large in all nations. Examples include men’s greater desire for sex in short-term or uncommitted contexts (Baumeister, Catanese, & Vohs, 2001; Lippa, 2009; Schmitt, 2005) and women’s relatively greater occupational preference to work with people rather than things (Lippa, 2010; see also Hansen, 1988; Su, Rounds, & Armstrong, 2009). Finally, evolutionarily informed studies of cross-national variation in sex differences have shown that variables seemingly unrelated to sex differences can explain substantial variation in them. For example, parasite load predicts sex differences in mate preferences (Gangestad et al., 2006; see also Low, 1990) and general economic development predicts sex differences in line angle judgments (Lippa, Collaer, & Peters, 2010) and personality (Lippa, 2010; Schmitt, Realo, Voracek, & Allik, 2008).
In conclusion, our study complements previous research by showing that a robust, probably universal, sex difference can co-occur with meaningful variation in its expression. We suggest that future research seeking to explain variation in sports participation and motivation, both across and within societies, may benefit from an explicitly evolutionary perspective.
Footnotes
Appendix
Codes for All Activities
| Region | Culture | Name or brief description | Activity | Sport type | Physical contact | Team | Sex |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Africa | Akan | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F |
| Akan | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Akan | Shooting party | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Akan | Dáme (like checkers) | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Africa | Amhara | Whip fights | SP | CO | RQ | BO | M |
| Amhara | Spear fights | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Amhara | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Amhara | Javelin throwing | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Amhara | Field hockey | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Amhara | Kwas (like baseball) | SP | OT | R | TM | M | |
| Amhara | Gabata (board game) | ST | NA | NA | BO | ||
| Azande | Cat's cradle | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Azande | Acrobatics | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Azande | Tip-cat | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Azande | Banga (draughts) | ST | NA | NA | IN | BO | |
| Africa | Bemba | Catching stones/seeds | A | NA | NA | NA | F |
| Bemba | Mbusa | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Africa | Dogon | Blind man’s bluff | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Dogon | Kicking girls and chase circle game | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Dogon | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Dogon | Top spinning | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Dogon | Swinging honey gathering practice | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Dogon | War game | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Dogon | Hidden object game | CH | NA | NA | BO | BO | |
| Dogon | Sham fights | SC | NA | RQ | IN | M | |
| Dogon | Cat’s cradle | SP | OT | NO | IN | BO | |
| Dogon | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Dogon | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Africa | Ganda | Playing house | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Ganda | String game | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Ganda | Sledding | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Ganda | Dust building | CH | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Ganda | Stick fight | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Ganda | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Ganda | Team kick fight | SP | CO | RQ | TM | M | |
| Ganda | Battle while riding bulls | SP | CO | RQ | TM | M | |
| Ganda | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Ganda | Soccer | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Ganda | Reed piercing | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Ganda | Stick throwing | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Ganda | Marbles | SP | OT | NO | TM | M | |
| Ganda | Stick rolling | SP | OT | NO | TM | M | |
| Ganda | Berry game | SP | OT | NO | TM | M | |
| Ganda | Mweso | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Africa | Hausa | Boxing | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M |
| Hausa | Soccer | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Africa | Kanuri | Dance game with girl tossing | A | NA | NA | NA | F |
| Kanuri | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Kanuri | Horsemanship | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Kanuri | Soccer | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Africa | Libyan Bedouin | Horsemanship displays | A | NA | NA | NA | M |
| Africa | Maasai | Playing house | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Maasai | Tag | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Maasai | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Maasai | Stick fight | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Maasai | Board game | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Africa | Mbuti | Playing house | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Mbuti | Tug of war | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Mbuti | Spear throwing | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Africa | Somali | Playing house | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Somali | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Somali | Camel rearing | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Somali | Stick fight | SP | CO | RQ | TM | M | |
| Somali | Hockey | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Somali | Tipcat | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Somali | Ball game like rugby | SP | OT | RQ | TM | M | |
| Somali | War game | SP | OT | RQ | TM | M | |
| Somali | Board game | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Somali | Chess | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Somali | Chinese checkers | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Somali | Card game | ST | NA | NA | TM | M | |
| Africa | Tiv | Kuta | CH | NA | NA | IN | M |
| Tiv | Cards | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Africa | Wolof | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F |
| Wolof | Hopscotch | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Wolof | Soccer | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Wolof | Tennis | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Asia | Andaman | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M |
| Andaman | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Andaman | Stone throwing | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Andaman | Diving competition | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Andaman | Canoe race | SP | OT | NO | M | ||
| Asia | Central Thai | Luk chuang (ball game) | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Central Thai | Hide and seek | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Central Thai | Ring around rosy | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Central Thai | Tag | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Central Thai | Tree tag | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Central Thai | Hopscotch | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Central Thai | Jump rope | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Central Thai | Slingshot | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Central Thai | Roulette, lottery, and card games of chance | CH | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Central Thai | Jacks | SP | OT | NO | IN | BO | |
| Central Thai | Marbles | SP | OT | NO | IN | BO | |
| Central Thai | Kick boxing | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Central Thai | Dekwat (tossing pennies) | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Central Thai | Boat race | SP | OT | NO | TM | M | |
| Central Thai | Chess | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Central Thai | Checkers | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Asia | Chukchee | Football dodgeball but informal | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Chukchee | Ball play without rules | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Chukchee | Chase game | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Chukchee | Crawling on knees | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Chukchee | Cat’s cradle | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Chukchee | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Chukchee | Jump rope | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Chukchee | Maintaining body positions to show strength | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Chukchee | Top spinning | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Chukchee | Wrestling duel | D | NA | RQ | IN | M | |
| Chukchee | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | BO | |
| Chukchee | Foot race | SP | OT | NO | IN | BO | |
| Chukchee | Lasso game | SP | OT | NO | IN | BO | |
| Chukchee | Acrobatics/jumping on walrus hide | SP | OT | NO | IN | BO | |
| Chukchee | Lance fighting | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Chukchee | Dog sled race | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Chukchee | Reindeer sled race | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Chukchee | Arm wrestling | SP | OT | RQ | IN | M | |
| Chukchee | Hand pulling | SP | OT | RQ | IN | M | |
| Asia | Eastern Toraja | Memory games | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Eastern Toraja | Hot potato | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Eastern Toraja | Motela (striking bamboo slats) | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Eastern Toraja | Shooting game | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Eastern Toraja | Sham fights | SC | NA | RQ | IN | M | |
| Eastern Toraja | Mosipati (like jacks) | SP | OT | NO | IN | F | |
| Eastern Toraja | Shell throwing | SP | OT | NO | IN | F | |
| Eastern Toraja | Spear throwing | SP | HU | NO | TM | M | |
| Eastern Toraja | Top spinning | SP | OT | NO | BO | M | |
| Eastern Toraja | Stilt race | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Eastern Toraja | Stick throwing | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Eastern Toraja | Calf kicking | SP | OT | RQ | IN | M | |
| Asia | Iban | Swimming | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Iban | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Iban | Playing house | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Iban | Top spinning | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Iban | Pole climbing | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Iban | Shin kicking | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Iban | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Iban | Stick pulling test of strength | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Iban | Arm wrestling | SP | OT | RQ | IN | M | |
| Asia | Ifugao | Block throwing | A | NA | NA | NA | M |
| Ifugao | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Asia | Khasi | Greasy pole | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Khasi | Hop scotch | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Khasi | Top spinning | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Khasi | Archery | SP | HU | NO | TM | M | |
| Khasi | Hockey | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Asia | Korea | Blind man’s bluff | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Korea | Hide and seek | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Korea | Cat’s cradle | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Korea | See-saw | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Korea | Foot juggling hacky sack | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Korea | Skating | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Korea | Sledding | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Korea | Swimming | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Korea | Dice | CH | NA | NA | IN | BO | |
| Korea | Jacks | SP | OT | NO | IN | BO | |
| Korea | Stick game | SP | OT | NO | IN | BO | |
| Korea | Swinging | SP | OT | NO | IN | BO | |
| Korea | Tug of war | SP | OT | RQ | TM | BO | |
| Korea | Boxing | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Korea | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Korea | Stick stone fights | SP | CO | RQ | TM | M | |
| Korea | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Korea | Soccer football | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Korea | Kite flying | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Korea | Pitch penny | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Korea | Yut chess checkers | ST | NA | NA | IN | BO | |
| Korea | Cards | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Korea | Chess | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Korea | Checkers | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Asia | Santal | Blind man’s bluff | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Santal | Duck duck goose | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Santal | Tug of war | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Santal | Counting game | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Santal | Guessing game | CH | NA | NA | IN | F | |
| Santal | Sham wrestling | SC | NA | RQ | TM | M | |
| Santal | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Santal | Pitching pot shards into holes | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Santal | Knocking pieces of wood | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Asia | Taiwan Hokkien | Jump rope | A | NA | NA | NA | F |
| Taiwan Hokkien | Playing house | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Taiwan Hokkien | Kites | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Taiwan Hokkien | Gambling game | CH | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Taiwan Hokkien | Pool | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Taiwan Hokkien | Baseball | SP | OT | R | TM | M | |
| Taiwan Hokkien | Cards | ST | NA | NA | IN | BO | |
| Taiwan Hokkien | Chess | ST | NA | NA | IN | BO | |
| Asia | Yakut | Falcons and ducks chase game | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Yakut | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Yakut | Archery | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Yakut | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Yakut | Lasso game | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Yakut | Running | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Europe | Highland Scots | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F |
| Highland Scots | Bowling | SP | OT | NO | BO | BO | |
| Highland Scots | Shinty | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Highland Scots | Soccer | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Highland Scots | Darts | SP | OT | NO | TM | M | |
| Europe | Saami | Rope game | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Saami | Wild-reindeer chase | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Saami | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Saami | Ski | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Saami | Stone/ball throwing | SP | CO | RQ | IN | BO | |
| Saami | Tug of war | SP | OT | RQ | TM | BO | |
| Saami | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Saami | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Saami | Sling competition | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Saami | Long jump-high jump | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Saami | Fireball-baseball | SP | OT | R | TM | M | |
| Saami | Hand wrestling | SP | OT | RQ | IN | M | |
| Saami | Chess | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Saami | Tablo | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Europe | Serbs | Pilica | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Serbs | Swinging | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Serbs | Blind man’s bluff | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Serbs | Desetek jacks | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Serbs | Target practice | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Serbs | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Serbs | Toss game | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Mid-Am Caribbean | Kuna | Blind man’s bluff | A | NA | NA | NA | M |
| Kuna | Circle game | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Kuna | Guessing game | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Kuna | Playing ghost | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Kuna | Running of the gauntlet | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Kuna | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Kuna | Basketball | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Kuna | Foot race | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Kuna | Stone recovery/diving | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Kuna | Boat race | SP | OT | NO | TM | M | |
| Kuna | Baseball | SP | OT | R | TM | M | |
| Kuna | Checkers | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Kuna | Dominoes | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Mid-Am Caribbean | Tarahumara | Play cooking | A | NA | NA | NA | F |
| Tarahumara | Pretend bullfight | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Tarahumara | Dice | CH | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Tarahumara | Shinny tákwari ball game | SP | OT | FR | IN | F | |
| Tarahumara | Doubleball nakburi ball game | SP | OT | FR | TM | F | |
| Tarahumara | Hoop and stick foot race | SP | OT | NO | TM | F | |
| Tarahumara | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Tarahumara | Lacrosse | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Tarahumara | Patole stick throwing | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Tarahumara | Disk throwing quoits horseshoes | SP | OT | NO | TM | M | |
| Tarahumara | Ball race | SP | OT | NO | TM | M | |
| Tarahumara | Quince domabóa parcheesi | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Mid-Am Caribbean | Tzeltal | Chase | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Tzeltal | Playing house / adult imitation | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Tzeltal | Catch with ball | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Tzeltal | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Tzeltal | Hide and seek | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Tzeltal | Horse riding and drinking game | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Tzeltal | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Tzeltal | Marbles | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Mideast | Kurds | Playing house | A | NA | NA | NA | F |
| Kurds | Hide and seek | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Kurds | Rock fight | SP | CO | RQ | TM | M | |
| Kurds | Ball-catching game | SP | OT | NO | BO | M | |
| Kurds | Knucklebones or marbles | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Kurds | Throwing stones for accuracy | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Kurds | Checkers | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Kurds | Backgammon | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| North America | Blackfoot | Hide and seek | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Blackfoot | Hobby horse | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Blackfoot | Playing house | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Blackfoot | Tag | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Blackfoot | Sledding | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Blackfoot | Pretend Buffalo/bear hunt | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Blackfoot | Skating | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Blackfoot | Crack the whip | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Blackfoot | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Blackfoot | Acrobatics | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Blackfoot | Fire game | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Blackfoot | War game | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Blackfoot | Guessing game, stick game, hand game | CH | NA | NA | BO | BO | |
| Blackfoot | Dice | CH | NA | NA | IN | BO | |
| Blackfoot | Travois | CH | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Blackfoot | Shinny | SP | OT | FR | TM | BO | |
| Blackfoot | Cree “women’s game” | SP | OT | NO | IN | BO | |
| Blackfoot | Tossing boy in air | SP | OT | NO | TM | BO | |
| Blackfoot | Arrow throwing | SP | OT | NO | IN | F | |
| Blackfoot | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Blackfoot | Clay war game | SP | CO | RQ | TM | M | |
| Blackfoot | Mud fight | SP | CO | RQ | TM | M | |
| Blackfoot | Team kick fight | SP | CO | RQ | TM | M | |
| Blackfoot | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Blackfoot | Top spinning | SP | OT | NO | BO | M | |
| Blackfoot | Wheel hoop pole arrow game | SP | OT | NO | BO | M | |
| Blackfoot | Foot race | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Blackfoot | Horse race | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Blackfoot | Snow snake throwing | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Blackfoot | Pool | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| North America | Copper Inuit | Acrobatics | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Copper Inuit | Blind man’s bluff | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Copper Inuit | Jump rope | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Copper Inuit | Swimming | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Copper Inuit | Tag wolf raven | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Copper Inuit | Cat's cradle | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Copper Inuit | Keep away with ball | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Copper Inuit | Hide and seek | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Copper Inuit | Skating | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Copper Inuit | Guessing game | CH | NA | NA | IN | BO | |
| Copper Inuit | Foot race | SP | OT | NO | IN | BO | |
| Copper Inuit | Tug of war | SP | OT | RQ | TM | BO | |
| Copper Inuit | Boxing | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Copper Inuit | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Copper Inuit | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Copper Inuit | Shooting gun | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Copper Inuit | Hockey | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Copper Inuit | Street hockey | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Copper Inuit | Volleyball | SP | OT | NO | TM | M | |
| Copper Inuit | Baseball | SP | OT | R | TM | M | |
| Copper Inuit | Arm finger wrestling | SP | OT | RQ | IN | M | |
| Copper Inuit | Poker | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| North America | Hopi | Blind man’s bluff | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Hopi | Tag | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Hopi | Top spinning | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Hopi | Object arrangement puzzle | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Hopi | Ring toss | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Hopi | Alatami | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Hopi | Breaking the piki stone | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Hopi | Circle game London bridge | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Hopi | Pursuit game | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Hopi | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Hopi | Playing witch | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Hopi | Rolling tires or hoops | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Hopi | Hidden object game | CH | NA | NA | TM | BO | |
| Hopi | Shinny | SP | OT | FR | TM | BO | |
| Hopi | Foot race | SP | OT | NO | BO | BO | |
| Hopi | Tug of war | SP | OT | RQ | TM | BO | |
| Hopi | War game | SP | CO | RQ | TM | M | |
| Hopi | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Hopi | Dart throwing | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Hopi | Stick throwing | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Hopi | Top spinning | SP | OT | NO | BO | M | |
| Hopi | Kick ball race | SP | OT | NO | TM | M | |
| Hopi | Softball | SP | OT | R | TM | M | |
| Hopi | Totolospi parchesi | ST | NA | NA | IN | BO | |
| North America | Iroquois | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F |
| Iroquois | Game of the bowl | CH | NA | NA | BO | BO | |
| Iroquois | War game sham | SC | NA | RQ | TM | M | |
| Iroquois | Softball | SP | OT | R | TM | BO | |
| Iroquois | American football | SP | OT | RQ | TM | BO | |
| Iroquois | Shinny | SP | OT | FR | TM | F | |
| Iroquois | Double ball throwing game | SP | OT | FR | TM | F | |
| Iroquois | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Iroquois | Javelin throwing | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Iroquois | Lacrosse | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Iroquois | Hockey | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Iroquois | Throwing snow snakes | SP | OT | NO | BO | M | |
| Iroquois | Hoop and pole | SP | OT | NO | TM | M | |
| Iroquois | Baseball | SP | OT | R | TM | M | |
| North America | Klamath | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Klamath | Top spinning | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Klamath | Cat's cradle | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Klamath | Ring and pin/cup and ball game—not serious Competition | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Klamath | Splashing | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Klamath | Dice/four stick guessing game | CH | NA | NA | IN | BO | |
| Klamath | Four stick guessing game | CH | NA | NA | IN | BO | |
| Klamath | Men's guessing game | CH | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Klamath | Foot race | SP | OT | NO | IN | BO | |
| Klamath | Hair pulling | SP | OT | RQ | IN | BO | |
| Klamath | Shinny double ball | SP | OT | FR | TM | F | |
| Klamath | Jumping up and down for endurance | SP | OT | NO | IN | F | |
| Klamath | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Klamath | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Klamath | Dart throwing | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Klamath | Spear throwing | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Klamath | Shinny | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Klamath | Strength contests—carrying rocks, bending saplings | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| North America | Ojibwa | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F |
| Ojibwa | Horsemanship | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Ojibwa | Pin game | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Ojibwa | Dice | CH | NA | NA | IN | BO | |
| Ojibwa | Game of the bowl | CH | NA | NA | IN | BO | |
| Ojibwa | Moccasin guessing game | CH | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Ojibwa | Canoe race | SP | OT | NO | IN | BO | |
| Ojibwa | Double ball throwing game | SP | OT | NO | TM | F | |
| Ojibwa | Boxing | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Ojibwa | Basketball | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Ojibwa | Hockey | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Ojibwa | Lacrosse | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Ojibwa | Horse race | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Ojibwa | Tag with mushpots | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Ojibwa | Baseball | SP | OT | R | TM | M | |
| Ojibwa | American football | SP | OT | RQ | TM | M | |
| Ojibwa | Bridge | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| North America | Pawnee | Guessing game, hand game | CH | NA | NA | BO | BO |
| Pawnee | Plum stones dice game | CH | NA | NA | IN | F | |
| Pawnee | Foot race | SP | OT | NO | IN | BO | |
| Pawnee | Stick throwing; hoop and pole | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Pawnee | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| North America | Tlingit | Cat’s cradle | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Tlingit | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Tlingit | Blindfold capture game | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Tlingit | No-smile game | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Tlingit | Roller skating | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Tlingit | Jumping | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Tlingit | Playing house | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Tlingit | Ball toss | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Tlingit | Cards | CH | NA | NA | IN | BO | |
| Tlingit | Dice | CH | NA | NA | IN | BO | |
| Tlingit | Bingo | CH | NA | NA | IN | F | |
| Tlingit | Stick and toggle | CH | NA | NA | BO | M | |
| Tlingit | Top spinning as die | CH | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Tlingit | Guessing game | CH | NA | NA | TM | M | |
| Tlingit | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Tlingit | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Tlingit | Spear throwing | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Tlingit | Basketball | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Tlingit | Marbles | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Tlingit | Canoe race | SP | OT | NO | TM | M | |
| Tlingit | Eating contest | SP | OT | NO | TM | M | |
| Tlingit | Checkers | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Oceania | Aranda | Cat’s cradle | A | NA | NA | NA | F |
| Aranda | Pretend cooking | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Aranda | Spear throwing | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Aranda | Bark throwing | SP | CO | RQ | TM | M | |
| Aranda | Tip cat | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Oceania | Chuuk | Swimming | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Chuuk | Hide and seek | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Chuuk | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Chuuk | Net game | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Chuuk | Tag | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Chuuk | Baseball | SP | OT | R | TM | BO | |
| Chuuk | Tug of war | SP | OT | RQ | TM | BO | |
| Chuuk | Jumping | SP | OT | NO | IN | F | |
| Chuuk | Softball | SP | OT | R | TM | F | |
| Chuuk | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Chuuk | Pool | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Chuuk | Reed throwing | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Chuuk | Boat race | SP | OT | NO | TM | M | |
| Chuuk | Arm wrestling | SP | OT | RQ | IN | M | |
| Oceania | Kapauka | Bouncing tree ring | A | NA | NA | NA | F |
| Kapauka | Playing harp | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Kapauka | Playing house | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Kapauka | String game | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Kapauka | Reed battle | SP | CO | RQ | TM | M | |
| Kapauka | War game | SP | CO | RQ | TM | M | |
| Kapauka | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Oceania | Lau Fijians | Cat’s cradle | A | NA | NA | NA | F |
| Lau Fijians | Jumping | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Lau Fijians | Disk sliding kitia | SP | OT | NO | BO | BO | |
| Lau Fijians | Boxing | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Lau Fijians | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Lau Fijians | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Lau Fijians | Spear throwing | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Lau Fijians | Foot race | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Lau Fijians | Reed throwing | SP | OT | NO | TM | M | |
| Lau Fijians | Cricket | SP | OT | R | TM | M | |
| Oceania | Tikopia | Stick fight | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M |
| Tikopia | Dart throwing | SP | HU | NO | TM | M | |
| Oceania | Trobriands | Hide and seek | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Trobriands | Bathing games | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Trobriands | Cat’s cradle | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Trobriands | Cricket | SP | OT | R | TM | BO | |
| Trobriands | Tug of war | SP | OT | RQ | TM | BO | |
| Trobriands | Wrestling/stick throwing | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Trobriands | Dart throwing | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Trobriands | Draughts | ST | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| South America | Aymara | Playing house | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Aymara | Cat's cradle | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Aymara | Rope swimming | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Aymara | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Aymara | Top spinning | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Aymara | Guessing game | CH | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Aymara | Game of rogues | CH | NA | NA | IN | M | |
| Aymara | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | BO | |
| Aymara | Foot race | SP | OT | NO | IN | BO | |
| Aymara | Soccer | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Aymara | Marbles | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| Aymara | Stone throwing | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| South America | Bahia Brazil | Capoeira (martial arts) | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M |
| Bahia Brazil | Soccer | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| Bahia Brazil | Basketball | SP | OT | FR | TM | M | |
| South America | Bororo | Swimming race | A | NA | NA | NA | M |
| Bororo | Relay race | SP | OT | NO | TM | M | |
| Bororo | Wheel race | SP | OT | NO | TM | M | |
| Guarani | Marbles | SP | OT | NO | IN | M | |
| South America | Kogi | Tag | A | NA | NA | NA | M |
| Kogi | Archery | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Kogi | Climb trees | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| South America | Mataco | Hockey | SP | OT | FR | TM | M |
| South America | Ona | Ceremonial wrestling | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Ona | Ball toss | A | NA | NA | NA | BO | |
| Ona | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Ona | Playing house | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Ona | Hide and seek | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Ona | Swings | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Ona | Ball game | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Ona | Foot race | SP | OT | NO | BO | BO | |
| Ona | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | BO | M | |
| Ona | Kick boxing | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Ona | Torch fight | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| Ona | Team push game | SP | CO | RQ | TM | M | |
| Ona | Archery | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| Ona | Sling competition | SP | HU | NO | IN | M | |
| South America | Saramaka | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F |
| Saramaka | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M | |
| South America | Tukano | Dolls | A | NA | NA | NA | F |
| Tukano | Cat’s cradle | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Tukano | Stilt walking | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Tukano | Top spinning | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Tukano | Break out | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Tukano | Archery | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Tukano | Ball game | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| South America | Yanoama | Volleyball | A | NA | NA | NA | BO |
| Yanoama | Cat’s cradle | A | NA | NA | NA | F | |
| Yanoama | Batting ball in air | A | NA | NA | NA | M | |
| Yanoama | Chest striking | SC | NA | NO | IN | M | |
| Yanoama | Tug of war | SP | OT | RQ | TM | BO | |
| Yanoama | Wrestling | SP | CO | RQ | IN | M |
Note: A = amusement; BO = both; CH= game of chance; CO = combat; D = duel; F = female; FR = frequent; HU = hunting; IN = individual; M = male; NA = not applicable; NO = none; OT = other; R = rare; RQ = required; SC = sham combat; SP = sport; ST = game of strategy; TM = team.
Acknowledgements
For suggestions and encouragement, we thank Garry Chick, Carol Ember, Brad Huber, Mike Lombardo, Bobbi Low, and Alice Schlegel. For comments on previous versions of the manuscript, we thank two anonymous reviewers, Garry Chick, Carol Ember, and Sarah Hrdy.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no conflicts of interest with respect to the authorship and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research and/or authorship of this article.