Preferred Leadership Behavior in the Serbian Setting: A Cross-Regional Perspective

Abstract

The aim of the study is to identify the relationship between national culture and preferred leadership behavior in the Republic of Serbia. Using the Value Survey Module 2008 (VSM08) and the Leader Behavior Description Questionnaire XII (LBDQXII), the research is conducted on a sample of 344 employees in Serbian business organizations. The results show that the national culture in Serbia is homogeneous, but that two Serbian first-level regions according to the Nomenclature of Territorial Units for Statistics (NUTS1) exhibit some differences in preferences for leader behavior and in correlation patterns between cultural values and aspects of preferred leadership behavior. This study fills a gap in researching the relationship between national culture and preferred leadership behavior in Serbia. Moreover, the results provide a basis for aligning actual with the preferred leadership behavior, so that the organizational goals can be achieved more efficiently. Despite the significant contributions, the study is not without limitations, primarily related to the sample size.

Keywords

Serbia national culture preferred leadership behavior leader behavior description questionnaire XII value survey module 2008

Introduction

The globalized world and business ask for knowledge of national cultures and their dynamics. Research results show that there is a link between national culture and leadership styles (Littrell et al., 2018), confirming that management is culturally dependent (Hofstede, 1983). Cultural context determines what will be the preferred and more effective leadership (Janićijević, 2019). Nevertheless, national culture and its relationship to the preferred leadership behavior are under-researched topics in Serbia. While Hofstede’s values for Serbian national culture are historical, there is very limited research on the preferred leadership behavior and its relationship to Serbian national culture, both in terms of research volume and frameworks used. Number of studies on Serbian national culture in Hofstede’s model is limited; Serbia is not part of the GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) research, and there is a small number of studies using the GLOBE questionnaire in Serbia (only: Nedeljković et al., 2018; Radovanović et al., 2022). Moreover, some of the few studies exploring the leadership behavior, or the influence of national culture on leadership behavior, do so without using the LBDQXII questionnaire (Berber et al., 2019; Mojić, 2003), or by only reviewing the theory, without an empirical study (Janićijević, 2019). Designed to bridge these gaps, the present study aims to identify the relationships between the national culture and preferred leadership behavior across Serbian NUTS1 regions. To achieve these goals, the paper first briefly describes Serbia as a context for conducting the research. The following is the section that provides the literature review and develops the research hypotheses. After a brief overview of the key methodological issues, the research results are presented and discussed. Finally, the paper ends with certain conclusions.

Understanding Serbia as a Research Context

Serbia is situated in the Southeast Europe, on the Balkan Peninsula. After being a part of various states during the 20th century, it has been independent since 2006. Once a socialist country, at the end of the 1980s Serbia began a transition from a planned to a market economy. In doing this, Serbia lagged behind many European transition countries (EBRD, 2022). Unique circumstances under which Serbia’s transition occurred can be blamed for this, including multiple military conflicts which Serbia was involved, the NATO bombing of Serbia, international sanctions, hyperinflation, democratic changes, institutional gaps, and alike (Vujačić & Petrović Vujačić, 2016). Serbia has 6,647,003 inhabitants the majority of whom are Serbs – 80.64% and Christian 86.6% (81.1% Orthodox) (SORS, 2023). According to NUTS, Serbian territory is divided into two NUTS1 regions: Serbia-North and Serbia-South. Serbia-North, extending along the Pannonian Plain, was under the rule of Austria-Hungary Empire for several decades, and today is economically more developed (SORS, 2022), compared to the predominantly hilly Serbia-South, ruled by the Ottoman Empire for centuries.

Literature Review and Hypotheses Development

Serbian National Culture

As a complex phenomenon relevant to group of people and manifested at various levels (Hofstede et al., 2010), national culture has been studied for more than a century. The study of cultural specificities in countries has gained increased interest since the research conducted Hofstede between 1968 and 1972 (Hofstede, 1983, p. 78). While Hofstede’s model faced substantial criticism in the literature (Kaasa et al., 2014), it remains the most widely used model of national culture and continues to dominate cross-cultural psychology and international management (Beugelsdijk & Welzel, 2018). Nevertheless, similar to other transition countries, there is little evidence on Serbian national culture within this model (Kaasa et al., 2014). Hofstede’s initial research included the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY) of which Serbia was a part, as the only East European country (Podrug et al., 2014). When the SFRY fell apart, a subsequent correction and addition of data was made and the dimensions of Slovenian, Croatian and Serbian national cultures are identified (Table S1). Building on Hofstede’s findings for Serbia, we anticipate that:

H₁

The national culture in Serbia exhibits high levels of Power Distance and Uncertainty Avoidance, low levels of Individualism and Indulgence, and moderate levels of Masculinity and Long-Term Orientation.

Numerous factors, such as variances in ethnic identity, historical background, and geographical characteristics (e.g., coastal or mountainous regions), can lead to significant cultural distinctions among different regions within a country (Kaasa et al., 2014). As the two Serbian NUTS1 regions were part of different cultures for a long time (Christian Austro-Hungarian and Muslim Ottoman), have different ethnic composition and levels of economic development as well as the relief structures, we expect that:

H₂

There are cultural differences between Serbian NUTS1 regions.

Preferred Leadership Behavior in Serbia

Various definitions of the leadership style (Gandolfi & Stone, 2018) underscore the significant role that the followers play in shaping the specific leadership behavior. Among other things, this influence is manifested through followers’ preferences toward specific leadership behavior. Alignment between followers’ expectations and leader’s actual behavior leads to more substantial influence over the followers (Brodbeck et al., 2000, p. 2) and effective achievement of the organizational goals (Yukl, 2012). Therefore, the research findings on preferred leadership behavior may have an important managerial impact (Brodbeck et al., 2000; Worner-Soderholm et al., 2019). Nevertheless, as described earlier, this kind of research in Serbian context is limited.

As for the methodological aspects of the leadership behavior research, the LBDQXII is recognized as “the only non-experimental questionnaire designed to research preferred leader behavior” (Minelgaite et al., 2018, p. 278). To the best of the authors’ knowledge, the preferred leadership behavior of managers in Serbia has not yet been explored using the LBDQXII. The present study is designed to fill this research gap.

Various studies have consistently shown that followers’ preferences regarding their managers’ leadership behavior are culturally determined (Brodbeck et al., 2000; Koopman et al., 1999). Research results indicating specific relationships between the dimensions of the LBDQXII and Hofstede’s cultural value dimensions (Table S2) imply that national culture is reflected in employees’ preferences towards specific leadership behavior of their managers. Drawing upon the relationships presented in Table S2 and considering the dimensions of national culture in Serbia identified by Hofstede (Table S1) and expected by our H₁, we propose that:

H₃

The Representation, Demand Reconciliation, Initiation of Structure, Consideration and Integration are more desirable, while Persuasiveness is less desirable dimension of leadership behavior for Serbian employees.

The findings indicating that similar cultures facilitate the development of analogous leadership concepts and prototypes (Brodbeck et al., 2000; Koopman et al., 1999), imply that our assumption of a heterogeneous cultures of Serbian NUTS1 regions (H₂) leads to our fourth hypothesis, that:

H₄

The preferred leadership behavior of managers differs across Serbian NUTS1 regions.

National culture impacts organizational phenomena such as preferred leadership behavior (Littrell et al., 2018). In Serbian context, Mojić (2003) reports that Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism and Masculinity of Serbian culture determine the leadership styles in Serbian enterprises. Summarizing the impact of national cultures on leadership, Janićijević (2019) finds that national culture is primarily important for two leadership dimensions: people oriented-task oriented, and authoritarian-participative. Considering the expected differences between the two Serbian NUTS1 regions, we hypothesize that:

H₅

Serbian NUTS1 regions will exhibit different correlation patterns between the dimensions of national culture and preferred leadership behavior.

Methodology

The study is conducted during 2022 on a convenient sample of 344 individuals employed in Serbian business organizations from 43 different cities. Data was collected via online survey (Google Forms). Details on the survey instruments (content, validation and translation), sample selection and data analyses methods are discussed within the Editorial (Ljubica & Littrell) of this Special Issue. The main demographic features of the sample are presented in the Table S3 (all tables are presented in the supplemental file). Data are analyzed descriptively, but also by Pearson correlation analysis. The Statistical Package for Social Sciences, SPSS version 29 is used for the data analysis.

Results and Discussion

Table S4 presents the average values for cultural and leader behavior dimensions. As hypothesized, results show that high level of Power Distance, low level of Individualism, and moderate levels of Long-Term Orientation and Masculinity characterize Serbian national culture. Results show low level of Uncertainty Avoidance and high level of Indulgence, which is opposite to our expectations and Hofstede’s previous findings for Serbia, but comparable with Kuhneisen’s (2013) results on Indulgence for Serbia. Additionally, we find that Serbian national culture exhibits high level of Monumentalism, a dimension not previously explored in Serbia by Hofstede.

Both of the regional subsamples (Serbia-South and Serbia-North) exceeds the threshold of 50 units, which allows reliable conclusions on statistical effects (Hair et al., 1998; Hofstede et al., 2008). Multivariate analyses of variances (MANOVA) results indicate no significant (at the ≤.05 level, for every dimension) differences in cultural values between Serbian NUTS1 regions, rejecting our H₂.

Serbian employees highly rate all of the LBDQXII dimensions. All of their average ratings are significantly (at the ≤.001 level, for all dimensions) higher than three. The value of three is taken as a test value as it indicates that a leader should occasionally act in a certain way. Nevertheless, although all of the dimensions are highly evaluated, it seems that Serbian employees particularly prefer that a leader maintains a closely knit organization; exhibits foresight and ability to predict outcome accurately; is a representative of the group; maintains cordial relations with superiors; clearly defines own role and lets followers know what is expected; uses persuasion and argument effectively; reconciles conflicting demands and reduces disorder to system; regards the comfort, well-being, status and contribution of the followers. The scores for all of the strongly preferred dimensions are significantly (at the ≤.001 level, for all dimensions) higher than four, which is a score indicating that a leader should often behave in a certain way. Previous results largely support our H₃. In addition to the hypothesized, the results additionally show that Serbian employees prefer that the leader’s behavior is characterized by Predictive Accuracy and Superior Orientation. Contrary to our expectation, employees in Serbia prefer that leaders demonstrate Persuasiveness in their behavior.

At the same time, MANOVA results show that the most, but not all of the preferred leader behavior’s dimensions are the same across Serbian NUTS1 regions. Employees in the Serbia-North region to a greater extent prefer that the leader reconciles conflicting demands and reduces disorder to system (Demand Reconciliation: F(1, 342)=7.601; p=.006) and allows followers scope for initiative, decision and action (Tolerance and Freedom: F(1, 342)=4.622; p=.032). Although H₄ is not fully confirmed, taken together, H₂ and H₄ generally support the previous findings suggesting that homogeneity of a culture can predict uniformity of the preferred leader behavior (Minelgaite & Littrell, 2018). In our case, the uniformity of the attitudes toward preferred leader behavior exists for the majority of the leader behavior dimensions.

The results show that almost all of the dimensions of preferred leadership behavior are correlated with at least one dimension of the national culture in the Serbia-South region (Table S5). Exceptions are Tolerance and Freedom and Individualism, which are not related to a single dimension of the national culture or preferred leadership behavior. On the other hand, seven of the twelve dimensions of the preferred leadership behavior have a certain correlation with only two dimensions of national culture in the Serbia-North region (Table S6).

Power Distance is positively related only to the expectation that the leader should speak and act as a representative of the group, but this relationship exists only in the Serbia-South region. While the level of Individualism is not related to any aspect of preferred leadership behavior in Serbia-South region, this dimension of national culture is positively correlated with as much as six aspects of the preferred leadership behavior, including the Persuasiveness, Initiation of Structure, Tolerance and Freedom, Production Emphasis, Predictive Accuracy, and Integration in the Serbia-North region. A clear social distinction of gender (Masculinity) has a positive relationship with the preferred level of Demand Reconciliation, Role Assumption, and Consideration of a leader in the Serbia-South region, but not related to any of the aspects of the preferred leadership behavior in the Serbia-North region. Similarly, only for the Serbia-South region is it the case that the higher the level of Uncertainty Avoidance is, the less preferred it is for the leader to be a representative of a group, to tolerate uncertainty, to be persuasive, to pressure for productive output, to be able to predict outcome accurately, to integrate and to have cordial relations with superiors and strive for higher status. While the Long-Term Orientation is generally negatively related to the preferred leadership behavior, the Serbian regions differ in terms of aspects of the preferred leadership behavior that are related to this dimension of national culture. Thus, in the Serbia-South region, only Consideration has a negative relationship with Long-Term Orientation, while a higher level of Long-Term Orientation implies less preferred Representation, Persuasiveness, Initiation of Structure, Production Emphasis, Predictive Accuracy, and Integration as aspects of leadership behavior in the Serbia-North region. While a higher level of Indulgence favors a greater preference for Representation, Persuasiveness, Initiation of Structure, Production Emphasis, Predictive Accuracy, and Superior Orientation in the Serbia-South region, this dimension of the national culture is not related to the preferred leadership behavior in the Serbia-North region. Finally, the level of Monumentalism is positively related to Production Emphasis in the Serbia-South region, and not related to any aspect of the preferred leadership behavior in the Serbia-North region.

As for the two aspects of preferred leadership behavior according to which NUTS1 Serbian regions differ (Demand Reconciliation and Tolerance and Freedom, Table S4), the results indicate that a leader who reconciles conflict demands is more preferred in the Serbia-North, but that this aspect of the preferred leadership behavior is not related to any dimension of the national culture in this Serbian region. On the other hand, Demand Reconciliation is positively related to the level of Masculinity in the Serbia-South region. A leader who allows followers scope for initiative, decision and action is more preferred among employees in Serbian-North, and this aspect of the preferred leadership behavior is positively related to the level of Individualism in this Serbian region. Nevertheless, none of the dimensions of the national culture in the Serbia-South region is related to this Tolerance and Freedom aspect of the preferred leadership behavior.

Overall, the results confirm H₅. Statistically significant correlations between the dimensions of national culture and preferred leadership behavior are not the same across Serbian NUTS1 regions, in any of the identified cases. Moreover, although the correlation coefficients are generally low, they are higher in the Serbia-North region (Serbia-South range: |.121-.201|, Serbia-North range: |.255-.338|). While Uncertainty Avoidance and Indulgence versus Restraint are related to the largest number of aspects of the preferred leadership behavior in the Serbia-South region, these dimensions are not correlated with any of the aspects of the preferred leadership behavior in the Serbia-North region. Also, Individualism has a positive correlation with the largest number of the aspects of the preferred leadership behavior in the Serbia-North region, and it is not correlated to the preferred leadership behavior in the Serbia-South region.

Similar to Mojić (2003), who linked Power Distance, Uncertainty Avoidance, Individualism, and Masculinity of Serbian culture with preferred leadership behavior, our results also indicate that these national culture’s dimensions are correlated to the preferred leadership behavior at least in one of Serbian NUTS1 regions. Comparable with the results presented by Littrell and Valentin (2005), our findings show that there is positive correlation between Power Distance and Representation, as well as between Monumentalism and Predictive Accuracy in one of the Serbian regions (Serbia-South). Nevertheless, contrary to Littrell and Valentin (2005), we find negative relationship between Uncertainty Avoidance and Tolerance of Uncertainty (Serbia-South), and Long-Term Orientation and Predictive Accuracy (Serbia-North), while Individualism is positively related to the Integration (Serbia-North).

Significant (p≤.05) correlations were obtained for Gender and Tolerance and Freedom (r=.119), Consideration (r=.137), Predictive Accuracy (r=.121) in Serbia-South, Gender and Indulgence (r=-.477) in Serbia-North, Gender and Superior Orientation in both of the regions (r=.147, r=.294); Age and Masculinity (r=.-.266), Long-Term Orientation (r=-.173), Indulgence (r=-.131), Predictive Accuracy (r=.204) and Superior Orientation (r=.137) in Serbia-South, Age and Uncertainty Avoidance Index (r=.253), Persuasiveness (r=.285) and Integration (r=.319) in Serbia-North, Age and Initiation of Structure (r=.166; r=.408) and Production Emphasis (r=.206; r=.267) in both of the regions; Length of Work Experience and Masculinity (r=-.214), Long-Term Orientation (r=-.180), Indulgence (r=-.132) in Serbia-South, Length of Work Experience and Persuasiveness (r=.270), Initiation of Structure (r=.430), Integration (r=.282) and Superior Orientation (r=.254) in Serbia-North, Length of Work Experience and Production Emphasis (r=.130, p=.254), Predictive Accuracy (r=.135, r=.256) in both of the regions; Number of Employees in the organization and Long-Term Orientation (r=-.317) in Serbia-North.

Conclusions

Working within Hofstede’s national culture model and the LBDQXII framework, the present study finds that Serbian national culture is characterized by high levels of Power Distance, Indulgence and Monumentalism, low levels of Individualism, Uncertainty Avoidance, and medium levels of Long-Term Orientation and Masculinity, and that it is homogeneous between the two Serbian NUTS1 regions. It further reveals that Serbian employees particularly prefer that leaders demonstrate Integration, Predictive Accuracy, Representation, Superior Orientation, Initiation of Structure, Persuasiveness, Demand Reconciliation and Consideration in their behavior and that, with exception of two dimensions (Demand Reconciliation and Tolerance and Freedom), there is no difference in preferred leadership behavior between Serbian NUTS1 regions. Finally, the results show that national culture influences preferred leader behavior, but differently within the two Serbian NUTS1 regions.

As such, the study fills the research gap in exploring Serbian national culture and preferred leadership behavior in this country, thus providing the additional evidence for generating a comprehensive knowledge on these phenomena. Moreover, the study provides valuable managerial implications as its results direct leaders’ attention to the most desirable attributes of their behavior. This enables an alignment between preferred and actual behavior, which contributes to the achievement of the organizational goals more efficiently.

Supplemental Material

Supplemental Material - Preferred Leadership Behavior in the Serbian Setting: A Cross-Regional Perspective

Supplemental Material for Preferred Leadership Behavior in the Serbian Setting: A Cross-Regional Perspective by Danijela Stošić Panić and Ivana Simić in Cross-Cultural Research.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the Ministry of Science, Technological Development and Innovation of the Republic of Serbia (451-03-65/2024-03).

ORCID iDs

Danijela Stošić Panić

Ivana Simić

Supplemental Material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

Author Biographies

Danijela Stošić Panić is an Associate Professor of Business Management. She has (co)authored one monograph, a university textbook, and over 40 scientific papers. She participates or has participated in several scientific projects. Currently, she is a principal investigator in a scientific project funded by the Serbian Science Fund. She is an active reviewer of the National Accreditation Body for Higher Education in the Republic of Serbia and the Republic of Srpska. As an international scholar, she has carried out several academic mobilities in Austria, Cyprus, and the USA.

Ivana Simić holds the position of Full Professor at the Faculty of Economics, University of Niš, where she teaches Fundamentals of Management, Management of Organizational Changes, and Management of Organizational Behavior. She has authored or coauthored eight university textbooks and monographs, alongside numerous scientific papers. Throughout her academic career, she has contributed to 11 scientific projects. Among her various roles, she served as the Department Head for Business Management and held the position of Manager of the Smart Office at the University’s Innovation Center. She is a member of the Scientific Society of Economists.

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