Urban Governance and the Challenges of Sustainable Wastewater Management

Abstract

Although wastewater can be considered a significant resource for augmenting domestic, agricultural, and industrial water supplies, drawbacks in its management result in environmental pollution. Using a mixed-methods approach, this study focused on understanding the realization of urban governance in wastewater management in Tema, Ghana. The key findings indicate that wastewater management is conducted in a restrictive environment, dictated by a lack of strategic and infrastructural planning, inadequate finances, and the public’s unwillingness to pay for improved services. It is further characterized by decentralization bottlenecks and an inability to stimulate private sector interest and investment. Improving urban environmental governance and practices, including wastewater management in African cities, requires city authorities and key actors in the water and wastewater management sector to deepen community engagement, create awareness, and strengthen partnerships and collaborations to improve the proper handling and disposal of wastewater.

Keywords

urban governance wastewater environment urbanization Ghana

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abanyie

S. K.

Amuah

E. E. Y.

Douti

N. B.

Antwi

M. N.

Fei-Baffoe

Amadu

C. C.

(2022). Sanitation and waste management practices and possible implications on groundwater quality in peri-urban areas, Doba and Nayagenia, northeastern Ghana. Environmental Challenges, 8, 100546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2022.100546

Ablo

A. D.

Etale

(2024). Beyond technical: Delineating factors influencing recycled water acceptability. Urban Water Journal, 21(8), 1014–1021. https://doi.org/10.1080/1573062x.2022.2155847

Aboagye

E. M.

(2022). Does Environmental Laws and Policies Work? A Review Of Ghana’s Case (March 30, 2022). Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=4070439 or https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.4070439

ADF . (2018). Accra sewerage improvement project (ASIP). African Development Fund, Vol. 31.

Adu-Boahen

Boateng

Okyere

E. Y.

Kyeremeh

(2023). An assessment of water quality and the locals’ perception of coastal lagoon pollution in Ghana: A case study of Chemu Lagoon in Tema. Asian Review of Environmental and Earth Sciences, 10(1), 28–39. https://doi.org/10.20448/arees.v10i1.4440

AfDB, UNEP, & GRID-Arendal . (2020). Sanitation and wastewater Atlas of Africa. Sanitation and wastewater Atlas of Africa. https://www.unep.org/resources/publication/feacal-sludge-management-africa-socioeconomic-health%0A. https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/sanitation-waste/en/

Agodzo

S. K.

Bessah

Nyatuame

(2023). A review of the water resources of Ghana in a changing climate and anthropogenic stresses. Front. Water, 4, 973825. https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2022.973825

Akon-Yamga

Quaye

Essegbey

G. O.

Ansa

E. D.

Oduro

(2024). Understanding the motivations for water reuse in a developing economy: The case of Ghana. In International conference on wider-uptake of water resource recovery from wastewater treatment (pp. 469–474). Springer Nature Switzerland.

Akpan

V. E.

Omole

D. O.

Bassey

D. E.

(2020). Assessing the public perceptions of treated wastewater reuse: Opportunities and implications for urban communities in developing countries. Heliyon, 6(10), e05246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05246

10.

Amoah

S. T.

Kosoe

E. A.

(2014). Solid Waste Management in UrbanAreas of Ghana: Issues and Experiences from Wa. Journal of Environment Pollution and Human Health, 2(5), 110–117. https://doi.org/10.12691/jephh-2-5-3

11.

Ang

M. L. E.

Owen

J. R.

Gibbins

C. N.

Lèbre

É.

Kemp

Saputra

M. R. U.

Lechner

A. M.

(2023). Systematic review of GIS and remote sensing applications for assessing the socioeconomic impacts of mining. The Journal of Environment & Development, 32(3), 243–273. https://doi.org/10.1177/10704965231190126

12.

Angmor

Frimpong

L. K.

Mensah

S. L.

Okyere

S. A.

(2024). Exploring the institutional barriers to rural water management in Ghana. Water Policy, 26(9), 921–940. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2024.130

13.

Annim

A. A.

(2024). Govt partners with private sector to boost liquid waste management. https://citinewsroom.com/2024/08/govt-partners-with-private-sector-to-boost-liquid-wastemanagement/

14.

Arthur

P. M. A.

Konaté

Sawadogo

Sagoe

Dwumfour-Asare

Ahmed

Williams

M. N. V.

(2022) Performance evaluation of a full-scale upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor coupled with trickling filters for municipal wastewater treatment in a developing country. Heliyon. 2022 Aug 138;(8):e10129. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e10129

15.

Asante

L. A.

(2020). Urban governance in Ghana: The participation of traders in the redevelopment of Kotokuraba market in Cape Coast. African Geographical Review, 39(4), 361–378. https://doi.org/10.1080/19376812.2020.1726193

16.

Asante

L. A.

Helbrecht

(2019). Changing urban governance in Ghana: The role of resistance practices and activism in Kumasi. Urban Geography, 40(10), 1568–1595. https://doi.org/10.1080/02723638.2019.1631109

17.

Awuah

Amankwaah-Kuffour

Gyasi

S. F.

Lubberding

H. J.

Gijzen

H. J.

(2014). Characterisation and management of domestic wastewater in two suburbs of Kumasi, Ghana. Research Journal of Environmental Sciences, 8(6), 318–330. https://doi.org/10.3923/rjes.2014.318.330

18.

Bagwasi

G. M.

(2023). Assessing end of life vehicles’ environmental management systems in Kenya: The case of Nairobi city county waste management streams. Doctoral dissertation. South Eastern Kenya University.

19.

Baidoo

(2020). Ghana: Cabinet approves community water and sanitation agency policy reform. https://www.cwsa.gov.gh/ghana-cabinet-approves-community-water-and-sanitation-agency-policy-reform-in-the-rural-water-and-sanitation-sub-sector/

20.

Battersby

Watson

(2018). Urban food systems governance and poverty in African cities, (pp. 290). Taylor & Francis.

21.

Bernal

Restrepo

Grueso-Casquete

(2021). Key criteria for considering decentralization in municipal wastewater management. Heliyon, 7(3), e06375. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e06375

22.

Bijekar

Padariya

H. D.

Yadav

V. K.

Gacem

Hasan

M. A.

Awwad

N. S.

Jeon

B. H.

Islam

Park

(2022). The state of the art and emerging trends in the wastewater treatment in developing nations. Water (Switzerland), 14(16), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.3390/w14162537

23.

Boadi

K. O.

Kuitunen

(2002). Urban Waste Pollution in the Korle Lagoon, Accra, Ghana. The Environmentalist, 22, 301–309. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1020706728569

24.

Bose

Bhattacharya

Kaur

Banerjee

Bhatia

Ray

Mondal

Ghosh

Mondal

(2024). Overcoming water, sanitation, and hygiene challenges in critical regions of the global community. Water-Energy Nexus, 7, 277–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wen.2024.11.003

25.

Braun

Clarke

(2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa

26.

Casiano Flores

(2023). Toward a contextualized research agenda: Governance challenges of the wastewater treatment policy in Mexico and the role of subnational governments. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Water, 10(1), e1617. https://doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1617

27.

Cheng

Meng

Chen

Liu

Fan

(2023). Potential benefits of public–private partnerships to improve the efficiency of urban wastewater treatment. Npj Clean Water, 6(1), 13. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41545-023-00232-2

28.

Cobbinah

P. B.

Erdiaw-Kwasie

M. O.

(2018). Urbanisation in Ghana: Insights and implications for urban governance. E-planning and Collaboration: Concepts, Methodologies, Tools, and Applications, 1–3(August), 256–278. https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-5225-5646-6.ch012

29.

Creswell

J. W.

(2015). Revisiting mixed methods and advancing scientific practices. In Hesse-Biber

Johnson

R. B.

(Eds.), The Oxford handbook of multimethod and mixed methods research inquiry (pp. 57–71): Oxford University Press.

30.

Crook

Ayee

(2006). Urban service partnerships,‘street‐level bureaucrats’ and environmental sanitation in Kumasi and Accra, Ghana: Coping with organisational change in the public bureaucracy. Development Policy Review, 24(1), 51–73. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7679.2006.00313.x

31.

Duarte Alonso

O. T. K.

Akbari

Nguyen

T. Q.

Nguyen

N. H.

Tran

T. D.

(2025). Energising the future: A dynamic capabilities approach to Vietnam’s renewable energy industry from the supply and demand side. The Journal of Environment & Development, 34(1), 150–178. https://doi.org/10.1177/10704965241284010

32.

Duarte Alonso

O. T. K.

Nguyen

L. C.

Akbari

Nguyen

N. M.

(2025). Igniting sustainability through the ‘profit-for-impact’catalyst: A case study. The Journal of Environment & Development, 34(1), 73–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/10704965241271236

33.

Eales

Blackett

Siregar

Febriani

(2013). Review of community-managed decentralized wastewater treatment systems in Indonesia. Water and sanitation program technicalpaper; WSP©. https://hdl.handle.net/10986/17751

34.

Ehwi

R. J.

Morrison

(2023). Entanglements in urban governance in new African cities: Appolonia city in the Greater Accra region, Ghana. Journal of Urban Affairs, 45(3), 407–427. https://doi.org/10.1080/07352166.2022.2074855

35.

Fobil

J. N.

Armah

N. A.

Hogarh

J. N.

Carboo

(2008). The influence of institutions and organizations on urban waste collection systems: An analysis of waste collection system in Accra, Ghana (1985–2000). Journal of Environmental Management, 86(1), 262–271. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.12.038

36.

Frimpong

L. K.

Mensah

S. L.

Ablo

A. D.

(2024). Households’ access and expenditure on water services: Examining intra-urban differences in the Accra metropolis, Ghana. Urban Governance, 4(3), 222–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ugj.2024.07.002

37.

Fuseini

(2016). Urban governance and spatial planning for sustainable urban development in tamale, Ghana. Doctoral dissertation. Stellenbosch University.

38.

Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) . (2014). 2010 population & housing census national analytical report (pp. 1–91). Ghana Statistical Service.

39.

Ghana Statistical Service (GSS) . (2021). Ghana population and housing census 2021. Ghana Population and Housing Census 2021, 3A(12), 7250–7257. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/269107473_What_is_governance/link/548173090cf22525dcb61443/download%0A

40.

Ghanaweb . (2018). Shama assembly to spend 20% of DACF on NaBCo, 40% on school feeding. https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Shama-Assembly-to-spend-20-of-DACF-on-NaBCo-40-on-school-feeding-650877240

41.

Ghanaweb . (2021). Tema Sewer System: Ambitious project to address predicament. https://www.ghanaweb.com/GhanaHomePage/NewsArchive/Tema-Sewer-System-Ambitious-project-to-address-predicament-1204477

42.

Ghuman

B. S.

Singh

(2013). Decentralization and delivery of public services in Asia. Policy and Society, 32(1), 7–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polsoc.2013.02.001

43.

Gul

Govender

I. G.

Bux

Baba

S. H.

(2024). Role of public attitude, knowledge, and trust in shaping the acceptance of recycled wastewater for potable and non-potable uses. AQUA—Water Infrastructure, Ecosystems and Society, 73(4), 722–736. https://doi.org/10.2166/aqua.2024.225

44.

GWCL . (2019). Tema – GWL - Welcome. https://www.gwcl.com.gh/tema/

45.

Gyampo

M. A.

(2012). Wastewater production, treatment, and use in Ghana. Paper presented at the thrid regional workshop of the project ’safe use of wastewater in agriculture (pp. 20–22). https://www.dow.wau.nl/iwe

46.

Gyimah

R. R.

Frimpong

L. K.

Anambane

Akolaa

R. A.

Mensah

S. L.

Danso-Abbeam

(2022). A comparative appraisal of environmental conditions in two urban low-income communities in Accra, Ghana. AUC Geographica, 57(2), 89–108. https://doi.org/10.14712/23361980.2022.8

47.

Henry

R. K.

Yongsheng

Jun

(2006). Municipal solid waste management challenges in developing countries–kenyan case study. Waste Management, 26(1), 92–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2005.03.007

48.

Hushie

(2018). State-civil society partnerships for improving safe water and sanitation coverage in the Northern region of Ghana: An exploratory qualitative study. Cogent Social Sciences, 4(1), 1508626. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311886.2018.1508626

49.

Keraita

Drechsel

Amoah

(2003). Influence of urban wastewater on stream water quality and agriculture in and around Kumasi, Ghana. Environment and Urbanisation, 15(2), 171–178. https://doi.org/10.1630/095624703101286619

50.

Kosoe

E. A.

Ahmed

(2024). Drivers of ineffective environmental sanitation bye-laws in Ghana: Implications for environmental governance. Urban Governance, 4(1), 16–24. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ugj.2023.09.004

51.

Kungu

Yartey

S. N. A.

Asantewaa

A. A.

Donkor

E. S.

(2025). Cholera burden in Ghana: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prevalence, antimicrobial resistance and risk factors. International Health, 17(6), 869–880. https://doi.org/10.1093/inthealth/ihaf069

52.

Lema

M. W.

(2025). Wastewater crisis in East African cities: Challenges and emerging opportunities. Discover Environment, 3(1), 18. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44274-025-00206-w

53.

Lissah

S. Y.

Ayanore

M. A.

Krugu

J. K.

Aberese-Ako

Ruiter

R. A. C.

(2021). Managing urban solid waste in Ghana: Perspectives and experiences of municipal waste company managers and supervisors in an urban municipality. PLoS ONE, 16(3), e0248392. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248392

54.

Maliga

Purwono

Harini

Soetarto

(2025). Critical indicators for determining sustainable domestic wastewater management for the achievement of SDG goal 6. Discov Water, 5(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00235-9

55.

Masiya

Mazenda

Davids

Y. D.

(2019). Effective public participation in municipal service delivery. Administratio Publica, 27(3), 27–47. https://hdl.handle.net/10520/ejc-adminpub-v27-n3-a3.

56.

Maskun

Kamaruddin

Khalid

R. M.

Anugerah

Wiranti

Bachril

S. N.

(2025). Regulatory challenges in wastewater management and its impacts on environmental sustainability. Hasanuddin Law Review, 10(3), 322–341. https://doi.org/10.20956/halrev.v10i3.5560

57.

Massoud

Lameh

Bardus

Alameddine

(2021). Determinants of waste management practices and willingness to pay for improving waste services in a low-middle income country. Environmental Management, 68(2), 198–209. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-021-01472-z

58.

Mburu

Gukelberger

Mwangi

Kinyua

R. H. J.

(2020). Cost-benefit analysis for a containerized MBR system for treatment of fish processing wastewater for industries in Kisumu, Kenya and comparison to wastewater stabilization ponds and activated sludge process. J Water Technol Treat Methods, 2(1), 127. https://doi.org/10.31021/jwt.20192122

59.

Mela

Alexakis

D. E.

Varelidis

(2022). Investigating public awareness towards wastewater management in a small community. Global NEST Journal, 24(2), 254–261. https://doi.org/10.30955/gnj.004151

60.

Mensah

J. K. B.

Amoah

Dzorgbe Mattah

P. A.

Mensah

(2022). Causes and effects of weak enforcement of environmental sanitation laws in Ghana. Journal of Human Behavior in The Social Environment, 33(5), 663–684. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2022.2080146

61.

Murray

Mekala

G. D.

Chen

(2011). Evolving policies and the roles of public and private stakeholders in wastewater and faecal-sludge management in India, China and Ghana. Water International, 36(4), 491–504. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2011.594868

62.

Obel

L. O.

Wang

Kipkirui

(2024). Inaccessible and Unaffordable? The State of Water and Sanitation Services in Nairobi, Kenya. Indian Journal of Environment Engineering (IJEE), 4(1), 16–24. https://doi.org/10.54105/ijee.A1852.04010524

63.

Obeng-Odoom

(2012). On the origin, meaning, and evaluation of urban governance. Norsk Geografisk Tidsskrift, 66(4), 204–212. https://doi.org/10.1080/00291951.2012.707989

64.

Obeng-Odoom

(2017). Urban governance in Africa today: Reframing, experiences, and lessons. Growth and Change, 48(1), 4–21. https://doi.org/10.1111/grow.12164

65.

Olds

H. T.

Corsi

S. R.

Dila

D. K.

Halmo

K. M.

Bootsma

M. J.

McLellan

S. L.

(2018). High levels of sewage contamination released from urban areas after storm events: A quantitative survey with sewage specific bacterial indicators. PLoS Medicine, 15(7), e1002614. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002614

66.

Omohwovo

E. J.

(2024). Wastewater management in Africa: Challenges and recommendations. Environmental Health Insights, 18. https://doi.org/10.1177/11786302241289681

67.

Onu

M. A.

Ayeleru

O. O.

Oboirien

Olubambi

P. A.

(2023). Challenges of wastewater generation and management in Sub-Saharan Africa: A review. Environmental Challenges, 11(July 2022), 100686. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envc.2023.100686

68.

Oteng-Ababio

Arguello

J. E. M.

Gabbay

(2013). Solid waste management in African cities: Sorting the facts from the fads in Accra, Ghana. Habitat International, 39, 96–104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2012.10.010

69.

Pata

U. K.

Destek

M. A.

(2023). A sustainable development assessment for the load capacity factor and carbon footprint in India: The role of information and communication technologies, renewable energy, and structural changes. The Journal of Environment & Development, 32(4), 392–412. https://doi.org/10.1177/10704965231205024

70.

Pearce

(2018). Urban heat: Can white roofs help cool world’s warming cities? Yale Environment. https://e360.yale.edu/features/urban-heat-can-white-roofs-help-cool-the-worlds-warming-cities?_lrsc=0875294d-c555-426a-9ea8-a49191db5260&platform=hootsuite&src=linkedin-elevate

71.

Pieterse

Parnell

Haysom

(2018). African dreams: Locating urban infrastructure in the 2030sustainable developmental agenda. Area Development and Policy, 3(2), 149–169. https://doi.org/10.1080/23792949.2018.1428111

72.

Ramos-Quintana

Dantán-González

Tovar-Sánchez

(2026). Improving wastewater management for sustainable environmental conditions: A flexible semantic network-based approach. Water, 18(5), 532. https://doi.org/10.3390/w18050532

73.

Rodriguez

D. J.

Serrano

H. A.

Delgado

Nolasco

Saltiel

(2020). From waste to resource: Shifting paradigms for smarter wastewater interventions in Latin America and the Caribbean. World Bank. https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/water/publication/wastewater-initiative

74.

Sadr

S. M.

Casal-Campos

Farmani

Ward

Butler

(2020). Strategic planning of the integrated urban wastewater system using adaptation pathways. Water Research, 182, 116013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2020.116013

75.

Samwine

Shen

Appiah

Yaoqi

(2017). Challenges and prospects of solid waste management in Ghana. International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Analysis, 5(4), 96–102. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ijema.20170504.11

76.

Satterthwaite

Beard

V. A.

Mitlin

(2019). Untreated and Unsafe: Solving the Urban Sanitation Crisis in the Global South. World Resources Institute. https://www.wri.org/research/untreated-and-unsafe-solving-urban-sanitation-crisis-global-south.

77.

Saunders

Sim

Kingstone

Baker

Waterfield

Bartlam

Jinks

(2018). Saturation in qualitative research: Exploring its conceptualization and operationalization. Quality & Quantity, 52(4), 1893–1907. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-017-0574-8

78.

Singhirunnusorn

Donlakorn

Kaewhanin

(2017). Household recycling behaviours and attitudes toward waste bank project: Mahasarakham municipality. J ASIAN Behavioural Stud, 2(5), 17–26. https://doi.org/10.21834/jabs.v2i5.215

79.

Suhartini

Jones

(2019). Urbanization and Urban Governance in Developing Countries. In: Urban Governance and Informal Settlements. In The Urban Book Series. Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-06094-7_2

80.

Tariq

Mushtaq

(2023). Untreated wastewater reasons and causes: A review of most affected areas and cities. Int. J. Chem. Biochem. Sci, 23(1), 121–143. https://iscientific.org/wp-content/uploads/2023/04/15-ijcbs-23-23-22.pdf.

81.

Tema

Metropolitan Assembly.

(2016). Annual Progress Report. Tema Metropolitan Assembly. https://new-ndpcstatic1.s3.amazonaws.com/CACHES/PUBLICATIONS/2017/08/21/GR-+Tema+Metropolitan_APR_2016.pdf

82.

Tenkorang

Yeboah-Agyepong

Buamah

Agbo

N. W.

Chaudhry

Murray

(2012). Promoting sustainable sanitation through wastewater-fed aquaculture: A case study from Ghana. Water International, 37(7), 831–842. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2012.733669

83.

The Economist Newspaper Limited . (2023). The private sector can play a vital role in ensuring the right to safe water and sanitation in Africa. https://impact.economist.com/sustainability/resilience-and-adaptation/the-private-sector-can-play-a-vital-role-in-ensuring-the-right-to-safe-water

84.

Torondel

Balls

Chisenga

C. C.

Kumwenda

Okello

Simiyu

Smith

Mumma

Banzi

Harvey

Chidziwisano

Chipungu

Grosskurth

Beda

Kapiga

EstevesMills

Cumming

Cairncross

Chilengi

(2019). Experiences of capacity strengthening in sanitation and hygiene research in Africa and Asia: The SHARE research consortium. Health Research Policy and Systems, 17(1), 77. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12961-019-0478-2

85.

UNESCO . (2017). Wastewater: The untapped resource, the united nations world water development report. https://www.unido.org/sites/default/files/2017-03/UN_World_Water_Development_Report_-_Full_0.pdf

86.

UN-Habitat . (2024). Progress report for global report on sanitation and wastewater management in cities and human settlements. UN-Habitat. https://sdgs.un.org/partnership-progress/global-report-sanitation-and-wastewater-management-cities-and-human

87.

United Nations . (2025). Ghana — Population mobility mapping for rapid cholera response (February 2025). United Nations Ghana. https://ghana.un.org/en/290662-ghana-%E2%80%94-population-mobility-mapping-rapid-cholera-response-february-2025#:∼:text=Publication,_Ghana_%E2%80%94_Population_Mobility_Mapping_for_Rapid_Cholera_Response_(February_2025,the_spread_)

88.

UN-WWAP . (2017). The united nations world water development programme report 2017: Wastewater: The untapped resource. UNESCO.

89.

Villarín

M. C.

Merel

(2020). Paradigm shifts and current challenges in wastewater management. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 390(September 2019), 122139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2020.122139

90.

WaterAid . (2019). Functionality of wastewater treatment plants in low- and middleincome countries Desk review. WaterAid.

91.

Yamane

(1967). Statistics: An Introductory Analysis (2nd ed.). New York: Harper and Row.