Brain atlases are equivalent to neuroimage databases provided an appropriate coordinate system to enable multisubject comparisons, along with comprehensive descriptions of the data, are included. Warping tools, visualization, and statistical analyses that accommodate the various neuroimaging modalities can be used to integrate diverse data and form comprehensive maps describing a particular subpopulation’s brain structure and function. By linking task performance and genetic information to brain morphology, complex interrelations between genotype, phenotype, and behavior can be established. Several examples of these multimodal, multisubject atlases, including those that are dynamic, are presented.
Andreasen NC, Arndt S, Swayze V, Cizadlo T, Flaum M, O’Leary D, and others. 1994. Thalamic abnormalities in schizophrenia visualized through magnetic resonance image averaging. Science266:294-298.
2.
Avoli M, Hwa GC, Kostopoulos G, Oliver A, Villemure JG. 1991. Electrophysiological analysis of human neocortex in vitro: experimental techniques and methodological approaches. Can J Neurol Sci18:636-639.
Berger H.1929. Uber das Elektrenkephalogramm des Menschen. Arch Psychiatr Nervenkr87:527-580.
5.
Bloom FE, Young WG, Kim WM. 1990. Brain browser. New York: Academic Press.
6.
Bookstein F.1989. Principal warps: thin-plate splines and the decomposition of deformations. IEEE Trans Pattern Anal Mach Intell11(6):567-585.
7.
Bookstein FL. 1997. Landmark methods for forms without landmarks: morphometrics of group differences in outline shape. Med Image Anal1(3):225-243.
8.
Brodmann K.1909/1960. Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre der Grosshirnrinde in ihren Prinzipien dargestellt auf Grund des Zellenbaues, Barth, Leipzig. In: Some papers on the cerebral cortex [On the comparative localization of the cortex]. Springfield (IL): Thomas. p 201-230.
9.
Broit C. 1981. Optimal registration of deformed images. PhD dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.
10.
Cannestra AF, Bookheimer SY, O’Farrell A, Sicotte N, Martin NA, Becker D, and others. 2000. Temporal and topographical characterization of language cortices utilizing intraoperative optical intrinsic signals. Neuroimage12:41-54.
11.
Carman GJ, Drury HA, Van Essen DC. 1995. Computational methods for reconstructing and unfolding the cerebral cortex. Cereb Cortex5(6):506-517.
Collins DL, Neelin P, Peters TM, Evans AC. 1994. Automatic 3D inter-subject registration of MR volumetric data into standardized Talairach space. J Comp Assist Tomogr18(2):192-205.
14.
Crabtree EC, Mega MS, Linshield C, Dinov ID, Thompson PM, Felix J, and others. 2000. Alzheimer grey matter loss across time: unbiased assessment using a probabilistic Alzheimer brain atlas. Soc Neurosci Abstr26:294.
15.
Dale AM, Sereno MI. 1993. Improved localization of cortical activity by combining EEG and MEG with MRI cortical surface reconstruction—a linear approachJ Cogn Neurosci5(2):162-176.
16.
Damasio H.1995. Human brain anatomy in computerized images. Oxford (UK): Oxford University Press.
17.
Davatzikos C.1996. Spatial normalization of 3D brain images using deformable models. J Comp Assist Tomogr20(4):656-665.
18.
Davatzikos C.1997. Spatial transformation and registration of brain images using elastically deformable models. Comp Vision Image Understand66(2):207-222.
19.
Davatzikos C, Vaillant M, Resnick SM, Prince JL, Letovsky S, Bryan RN. 1996. A computerized approach for morphological analysis of the corpus callosum. J Comp Assist Tomogr20(1):88-97.
20.
Dhenain M, Ruffins SW, Jacobs RE. 2001. Three-dimensional digital mouse atlas using high-resolution MRI. Dev Biol15:232(2):458-470.
21.
Neuroimage3:S130.
22.
Duvernoy HM. 1991. The human brain. New York: Springer-Verlag.
23.
Evans AC, Collins DL, Milner B. 1992. An MRI-based stereotactic brain atlas from 300 young normal subjects. In: Proceedings of the 22nd Symposium of the Society for Neuroscience, Anaheim, CA, p 408.
24.
Evans AC, Collins DL, Neelin P, MacDonald D, Kamber M, Marrett TS. 1994. Three-dimensional correlative imaging: applications in human brain mapping. In: Thatcher RW, Hallett M, Zeffiro T, John ER, Huerta M, editors. Functional neuroimaging: technical foundations. San Diego (CA): Academic Press. p 145-162.
25.
Fox NC, Freeborough PA, Rossor MN. 1996. Visualization and quantification of rates of cerebral atrophy in Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet348(9020):94-97.
26.
Fox PT, Mikiten S, Davis G, Lancaster JL. 1994. BrainMap: a database of human functional brain mapping. In: Thatcher RW, Hallett M, Zeffiro T, John ER, Huerta M, editors. Functional neuroimaging: technical foundations. Orlando (FL): Academic Press. p 95-106.
27.
Fox PT, Mintun MA, Reiman EM, Raichle ME. 1988. Enhanced detection of focal brain responses using inter-subject averaging and change distribution analysis of subtracted PET images. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab8:642-653.
28.
Fox PT, Perlmutter JS, Raichle M.1985. A stereotactic method of localization for positron emission tomography. J Comp Assist Tomogr9(1):141-153.
29.
Freeborough PA, Woods RP, Fox NC. 1996. Accurate registration of serial 3D MR brain images and its application to visualizing change in neurodegenerative disorders. J Comput Assist Tomogr20(6):1012-1022.
30.
Friston KJ, Frith CD, Liddle PF, Frackowiak RSJ. 1991. Plastic transformation of PET images. J Comp Assist Tomogr9(1):141-153.
31.
Friston KJ, Passingham RE, Nutt JG, Heather JD, Sawle GV, Frackowiak RSJ. 1989. Localization in PET images: direct fitting of the intercommissural (AC-PC) line. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab9:690-695.
32.
Gatz M, Pedersen NL, Berg S, Johansson B, Johansson K, Mortimer JA, and others. 1997. Heritability for Alzheimer’s disease: the study of dementia in Swedish twins. J Gerontol Biol Sci Med Sci52(2):M117-M125.
33.
Gee JC, LeBriquer L, Barillot C, Haynor DR, Bajcsy R.1995. Bayesian approach to the brain image matching problem. Institute for Research in Cognitive Science technical report 95-08.
34.
Gee JC, Reivich M., Bajcsy R.1993. Elastically deforming an atlas to match anatomical brain images. J Comp Assist Tomogr17(2):225-236.
35.
Geschwind N, Levitsky W.1968. Human brain: left-right asymmetries in temporal speech region. Science161:186.
36.
Geyer S, Schleicher A, Zilles K.1997. The somatosensory cortex of man: cytoarchitecture and regional distributions of receptor binding sites. Neuroimage6(1):27-45.
37.
Goldberg TE, Torrey EF, Berman KF, Weinberger DR. 1994. Relations between neuropsychological performance and brain morphological and physiological measures in monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. Psychiatry Res55(1):51-61.
38.
Grefkes C, Geyer S, Schormann T, Roland P, Zilles K.2001. Human somatosensory area 2: observer-independent cytoarchitectonic mapping, interindividual variability, and population map. Neuroimage14(3):617-631.
39.
Grenander U, Miller MI. 1998. Computational anatomy: an emerging discipline, Technical Report, Department of Mathematics, Brown University, Providence, RI.
40.
Healy MD, Smith JE, Singer MS, Nadkarni PM, Skoufos E, Miller PL, and others. 1997. Olfactory receptor database (ORDB): resource for sharing and analysing published and unpublished data. Chem Senses22(3):321-326.
41.
Ingvar M, Eriksson L, Greitz T, Stone-Elander S, Dahlbom M, Rosenqvist G, and others. 1994. Methodological aspects of brain activation studies—cerebral blood flow determined with [O-15]butanol and positron emission tomography. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab14(4):628-638.
42.
Jacobs RE, Fraser SE. 1994. Magnetic resonance microscopy of embryonic cell lineages and movements. Science263(5147):681-684.
Lancaster JL, Woldorff MG, Parsons LM, Liotti M, Freitas CS, Rainey L, and others. 2000. Automated Talairach atlas labels for function al brain mapping. Hum Brain Map10(3):120-131.
45.
Le Bihan D.1996. Functional MRI of the brain: principles, applications and limitations. Neuroradiology23(1):1-5.
46.
Leonard CM. 1996. Structural variation in the developing and mature cerebral cortex: noise or signal? In: Thatcher RW, Reid Lyon G, Rumsey J, Krasnegor N, editors. Developmental neuroimaging: mapping the development of brain and behavior. New York: Academic Press. p 207-231.
47.
Mai J, Assheuer J, Paxinos G.1997. Atlas of the human brain. New York: Academic Press.
48.
Martin RF, Bowden DM. 1996. Template atlas of the primate brain. Seattle (WA): Primate Information Center, University of Washington.
49.
Martin RF, Bowden DM. 2000. Primate brain maps: structure of the macaque brain: a laboratory guide with original brain sections, printed atlas and electronic templates for data and schematics (New ed), software by J Wu, MF Dubach, JE Robertson. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
50.
Mazziotta J, Toga AW, Evans A, Fox P, Lancaster J, Zilles K, and others. 2001a. A four-dimensional probabilistic atlas of the human brain. R Soc356:1293-1322.
51.
Mazziotta J, Toga AW, Evans A, Fox P, Lancaster J, Zilles, and others. 2001b. A probabilistic atlas and reference system for the human brain: International Consortium for Brain Mapping (ICBM). Phil Trans R Soc Lond B356:1293-1322.
52.
Mazziotta JC, Toga AW, Evans AC, Fox P, Lancaster J.1995. A probabilistic atlas of the human brain: theory and rationale for its development. Neuroimage2:89-101.
53.
Mega MS, Chen S, Thompson PM, Woods RP, Karaca TJ, Tiwari A, and others. 1997. Mapping pathology to metabolism: coregistration of stained whole brain sections to PET in Alzheimer’s disease. Neuroimage5:147-153.
54.
Mega MS, Fennema CN, Dinov ID, Thompson PM, Archibald SL, Lindshield C, and others. 2000. Construction, testing, and validation of a sub-volume probabilistic human brain atlas for the elderly and demented populations. Neuroimage11(5):S597.
55.
Meltzer CC, Frost JJ. 1994. Partial volume correction in emission-computed tomography: focus on Alzheimer disease. In: Thatcher RW, Hallett M, Zeffiro T, John ER, Huerta M, editors. Functional neuroimaging: technical foundations. New York: Academic Press. p 163-170.
56.
Minoshima S, Koeppe RA, Frey KA, Ishihara M, Kuhl DE. 1994. Stereotactic PET atlas of the human brain: aid for visual interpretation of functional brain images. J Nucl Med35:949-954.
57.
Missir O, Dutheil-Desclercs C, Meder JF, Musolino A, Fredy D.1989. Central sulcus patterns at MRI. J Neuroradiol16:133-144.
58.
Narr KL, Cannon TD, Woods RP, Thompson PM, Kim S, Asuncion D, and others. 2001. Genetic contributions to altered callosal morphology in schizophrenia (submitted).
59.
Narr KL, van Erp TGM, Cannon TD, Woods RP, Thompson PM, Jang S, and others. 2001. A twin study of genetic contributions to hippocampal morphology in schizophrenia (submitted).
60.
Noga JT, Bartley AJ, Jones DW, Torrey EF, Weinberger DR. 1996. Cortical gyral anatomy and gross brain dimensions in monozygotic twins discordant for schizophrenia. Schizophr Res22(1): 27-40.
61.
Nowinski WL, Bryan RN, Raghavan R.1997. The electronic clinical brain atlas: multiplanar navigation of the human brain. Stuttgart: Thieme.
62.
Ono M, Kubik S, Abernathey CD. 1990. Atlas of the cerebral sulci. Stuttgart: Thieme.
63.
Oppenheim JS, Skerry JE, Tramo MJ, Gazzaniga MS. 1989. Magnetic resonance imaging morphology of the corpus callosum in monozygotic twins. Ann Neurol26(1):100-104.
64.
Palovcik RA, Reid SA, Principe JC, Albuquerque A.1992. 3D computer animation of electrophysiological responses. J Neurosci Methods41:1-9.
65.
Paus T, Tomaioulo F, Otaky N, MacDonald D, Petrides M, Atlas J, and others. 1996. Human cingulate and paracingulate sulci: pattern, variability, asymmetry and probabilistic map. Cereb Cortex6:207-214.
66.
Penfield W, Boldrey E.1937. Somatic motor and sensory representation in the cerebral cortex of man as studied by electrical stimulation. Brain60:389-443.
67.
Peterson BE, Healy MD, Nadkarni PM, Miller PL, Shepherd GM. 1996. ModelDB: an environment for running and storing computational models and their results applied to neuroscience. J Am Med Inform Assoc33(6):389-398.
68.
Pouratian N, Cannestra AF, Martin N, Becker D, Toga AW. 2001. Intraoperative optical imaging of intrinsic signals as a clinical tool for functional brain mapping (submitted).
69.
Rademacher J, Caviness VS Jr, Steinmetz H, Galaburda AM. 1993. Topographical variation of the human primary cortices: implications for neuroimaging, brain mapping and neurobiology. Cereb Cortex3(4):313-329.
70.
Rajkowska G, Goldman-Rakic P.1995. Cytoarchitectonic definition of pre-frontal areas in the normal human cortex: II. Variability in locations of areas 9 and 46 and relationship to the Talairach coordinate system. Cereb Cortex5(4):323-337.
71.
Roland PE, Zilles K.1994. Brain atlases-a new research tool. Trends Neurosci17(11):458-467.
72.
Salamon G, Raynaud C, Regis J, Rumeau C.1990. Magnetic resonance imaging of the pediatric brain: an anatomical atlas. New York: Lippencott-Raven.
73.
Schwartz EL, Merker B.1986. Computer-aided neuroanatomy: differential geometry of cortical surfaces and an optimal flattening algorithm. IEEE Comp Graphics Appl6:36-44.
74.
Seitz RJ, Bohm C, Greitz T, Roland PE, Eriksson L, Blomqvist G, and others. 1990. Accuracy and precision of the computerized brain atlas programme for localization and quantification in positron emission tomography. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab10:443-457.
75.
Neuroimage3(3):S252.
76.
Smith GE. 1907. A new topographical survey of the human cerebral cortex, being an account of the distribution of the anatomically distinct cortical areas and their relationship to the cerebral sulci. J Anat41:237-254.
77.
Sowell ER, Thompson PM, Mattson SN, Tessner KD, Jernigan TL, Riley EP, and others. 2001. Regional brain shape abnormalities persist into adolescence after heavy prenatal alcohol exposure. Paper presented at the 31st International Meeting of the Society for Neuroscience, San Diego, CA, November 10-15.
78.
Steinmetz H, Furst G, Freund H-J.1989. Cerebral cortical localization: application and validation of the proportional grid system in MR imaging. J Comp Assist Tomogr13(1):10-19.
79.
Steinmetz H, Furst G, Freund H-J.1990. Variation of perisylvian and calcarine anatomic landmarks within stereotaxic proportional coordinates. Am J Neuroradiol11(6):1123-1130.
80.
Stensaas SS, Eddington DK, Dobelle WH. 1974. The topography and variability of the primary visual cortex in man. J Neurosurg40:747-755.
81.
Subsol G, Roberts N, Doran M, Thirion JP, Whitehouse GH. 1997. Automatic analysis of cerebral atrophy. Magn Reson Imaging15(8):917-927.
82.
Swanson LW. 1992. Brain maps: structure of the rat brain. New York: Elsevier.
83.
Talairach J, Szikla G. 1967. Atlas d’Anatomie stereotaxique du telencephale: etudes anatomo-radiologiques. Paris: Masson & Cie.
84.
Talairach J, Tournoux P.1988. Co-planar stereotaxic atlas of the human brain. New York: Thieme.
85.
Thirion JP, Prima S, Subsol G, Roberts N.2000. Statistical analysis of normal and abnormal dissymmetry in volumetric medical images. Med Image Anal4(2):111-121.
86.
Thompson PM, Giedd JN, Blanton RE, Lindshield C, Woods RP, MacDonald D, and others. 1998. Growth patterns in the developing human brain detected using continuum-mechanical tensor maps and serial MRI. Paper presented at the 5th International Conference on Human Brain Mapping, Montreal, Canada.
87.
Thompson PM, Giedd JN, Woods RP, MacDonald D, Evans AC, Toga AW. 2000. Growth patterns in the developing human brain detected using continuum-mechanical tensor mapping. Nature404:190-193.
88.
Thompson PM, MacDonald D, Mega MS, Holmes CJ, Evans AC, Toga AW. 1997. Detection and mapping of abnormal brain structure with a probabilistic atlas of cortical surfaces. J Comp Assist Tomogr21(4):567-581.
89.
Thompson PM, Moussai J, Khan AA, Zohoori S, Goldkorn A, Mega MS, and others. 1998. Cortical variability and asymmetry in normal aging and Alzheimer’s disease. Cereb Cortex8:492-509.
90.
Thompson PM, Narr KL, Blanton RE, Toga AW. 2002. Mapping structural alterations of the corpus callosum during brain development and degeneration. In: Iacoboni M, Zaidel E, editors. The parallel brain: the cognitive neuroscience of the corpus callosum. Cambridge (MA): MIT Press.
91.
Thompson PM, Schwartz C, Lin RT, Khan AA, Toga AW. 1996. 3D statistical analysis of sulcal variability in the human brain. J Neurosci16(13):4261-4274.
92.
Thompson PM, Schwartz C, Toga AW. 1996. High-resolution random mesh algorithms for creating a probabilistic 3D surface atlas of the human brain. Neuroimage3:19-34.
93.
Thompson PM, Toga AW. 1996. A surface-based technique for warping 3-dimensional images of the brain. IEEE Trans Med Imag15(4):1-16.
94.
Thompson PM, Toga AW. 1997. Detection, visualization and animation of abnormal anatomic structure with a deformable probabilistic brain atlas based on random vector field transformations. Med Image Anal1(4):271-294.
95.
Thompson PM, Toga AW. 1998a. Anatomically-driven strategies for high-dimensional brain image warping and pathology detection. In: Toga AW, editor. Brain warping. New York: Academic Press.
96.
Thompson PM, Toga AW. 1998b. Mathematical/computational strategies for creating a probabilistic atlas of the human brain. Paper presented at the Workshop on Statistics of Brain Mapping, Centre de Recherches Mathématiques, McGill University, Canada, June 13-14.
97.
NeuroImage Abs13(6):S1105.
98.
Thurfjell L, Bohm C, Greitz T, Eriksson L.1993. Transformations and algorithms in a computerized brain atlas. IEEE Trans Nucl Sci40(4):1167-1191.
99.
Toga AW, Ambach K, Quinn B, Hutchin M, Burton JS. 1994. Postmortem anatomy from cryosectioned whole human brain. J Neurosci Methods54(2):239-252.
100.
Toga AW, Cannestra AF. 1996. A three dimensional multi-modality brain map of the nemistrina monkey. Neurosci Abstr22:675.
101.
Toga AW, Mazziotta JC. 1996. Brain mapping: the methods. New York: Academic Press.
102.
Toga AW, Thompson PM. 2000. An introduction to maps and atlases of the brain. In Toga AW, Mazziotta JC, editors. Brain mapping: the systems. San Diego: Academic Press.
103.
Toga AW, Thompson PM, Payne BA. 1996. Modeling morphometric changes of the brain during development. In: Thatcher RW, Lyon GR, Rumsey J, Krasnegor N, editors. Developmental neuroimaging: mapping the development of brain and behavior. New York: Academic Press.
104.
Neuroimage5(4):S41.
105.
Van Essen DC, Maunsell JHR. 1980. Two-dimensional maps of the cerebral cortex. J Comp Neurol191:255-281.
106.
Van Essen DC, Maunsell JHR. 1983. Hierarchical organization an functional streams in the visual cortex. Trens Neurol Sci6:370-375.
107.
Viola PA, Wells WM. 1995. Alignment by maximization of mutual information. Paper presented at the 5th IEEE International Conference on Computer Vision, 16-23, Cambridge, MA.
108.
Watson JDG, Myers R, Frackowiak RSJ, Hajnal JV, Woods RP, Mazziotta JC, and others. 1993. Area V5 of the human brain: evidence form a combined study using positron emission tomography and magnetic resonance imaging. Cereb Cortex3:79-94.
109.
Wells WM, Viola P, Atsumi H, Nakajima S, Kikinis R.1997. Multimodal volume registration by maximization of mutual information. Med Image Anal1(1):35-51.
110.
Woods RP. 1996. Modeling for intergroup comparisons of imaging data. Neuroimage4(3):84-94.
111.
Woods RP, Cherry SR, Mazziotta JC. 1992. Rapid automated algorithm for aligning and reslicing PET images. J Comp Assist Tomogr16:620-633.
