Using Positive Reinforcement With Young Children

Abstract

Positive reinforcement is a research-based practice essential for supporting young children’s use of appropriate behaviors and skills. The application of positive reinforcement also is consistent with recommendations by national organizations for early childhood and early childhood special education. In this article, we describe eight guidelines for planning, implementing, and evaluating positive reinforcement in early childhood contexts that are based on current research and recommendations of these professional organizations. Examples of the use of guidelines and tools for supporting implementation are provided.

Keywords

early childhood education evidence-based interventions preschool school/classroom

Positive reinforcement is the provision of a stimulus immediately after a behavior that results in an increase in the use of that behavior (J. O. Cooper et al., 2007). Positive reinforcement is sometimes misunderstood or misapplied, including in early childhood settings which are those that serve children from birth to age 8. One common mistake is to refer to reinforcing a person instead of reinforcing a behavior. Another common mistake is for a practitioner to provide a consequence the practitioner believes should be reinforcing of a desired behavior, and, when that consequence does not result in an increase in the desired behavior, concluding the reinforcement did not work, instead of recognizing that the consequence was not actually a reinforcer (J. O. Cooper et al., 2007).

Perhaps because of these misunderstandings and misapplications, critiques of positive reinforcement have had a significant—and we believe negative—impact on the field of early childhood education. Practitioners have been cautioned against praise and told to use encouragement instead (e.g., Gartrell, 2004). Some early childhood programs prohibit the use of edible reinforcers. Prominent early childhood educators insist that positive reinforcement in the form of external reinforcers such as praise or the provision of tangible items makes children dependent on adult approval (e.g., Kohn, 2001). These theorists believe children should engage in behaviors because they are “intrinsically motivated” to complete them (Kohn, 1999). (Note that another way to describe intrinsically motivated behaviors is “behavior maintained by consequences that are the natural and automatic results of responding” [Dickinson, 1989, p. 2].) These criticisms often have some validity. For example, we should use descriptive praise (e.g., “You did a good job using walking feet”) rather than a barrage of nondescriptive praise (e.g., “Good job”). We should be thoughtful about using edible reinforcement by first considering the use of more natural/less intrusive types of reinforcement. We must thin reinforcement over time to ensure children maintain the desired behaviors (J. O. Cooper et al., 2007). However, it is misguided to dismiss the use of positive feedback and reinforcement altogether. In the early childhood years, children must learn a variety of behaviors, from how to walk and talk to how to behave appropriately. For many children, these behaviors develop naturally through the context of everyday interactions with the environment, teachers, and peers. For other children, these behaviors require specific instruction. Teachers, or any practitioners who work with young children, can and should use positive reinforcement to support children’s individual learning and behavioral needs.

Children With Emotional and Behavioral Disorders in Early Childhood Settings

There is evidence that emotional and behavioral disorders are present in an estimated 9.5% to 19.5% of preschool-aged children (Brauner & Stephens, 2006; Egger & Angold, 2006). In addition, persistent challenging behavior is often reported as a concern by preschool teachers and parents (Kaiser et al., 2000; Reinke et al., 2011; Snell et al., 2012). These prevalence data of challenging behavior in preschoolers are supported by other data that show preschool children are suspended and expelled at alarming rates (6.67 per 1,000 children), higher than for school-age students (Gilliam, 2005). Challenging behavior in early childhood can persist over time, resulting in increased negative outcomes and decreased academic achievement (J. L. Cooper et al., 2009). Therefore, it is critical that early childhood teachers are equipped with the knowledge and skills to positively impact young children’s development of desired behaviors. Positive reinforcement is an essential and effective strategy for supporting young children’s use of desired behaviors.

Research on Positive Reinforcement in Early Childhood

Positive reinforcement has been used to teach young children a variety of skills or behaviors across a variety of contexts. For example, positive reinforcement has been used, typically as one component of an intervention, to increase creative art behaviors (Lopez et al., 2017), play skills (Barton & Wolery, 2010; Goetz & Baer, 1973), prosocial skills (Blair et al., 2010; Camargo et al., 2016; Matson et al., 2007), and communication skills (Christensen-Sandfort & Whinnery, 2013; Koegel et al., 2009). Furthermore, positive reinforcement has been used in school, home, and community settings and by researchers, teachers, and families (Wood et al., 2011) to support desired child behaviors.

Research on the use of positive reinforcement in early childhood settings to support young children exhibiting persistent challenging behavior is growing (Hemmeter et al., 2016). Positive reinforcement with young children exhibiting challenging behavior has most often been studied as a part of an intervention package (Blair et al., 2010; Jolstead et al., 2017). For example, tiered models of social-emotional interventions in early childhood such as the Pyramid Model (Hemmeter et al., 2016) include positive reinforcement to support positive behavior and social skills for all children as universal strategies and the use of positive reinforcement of appropriate behavior for those children who exhibit persistent challenging behavior even after universal effective practices are in place. In studies of tiered models of social-emotional preschool curricula, positive reinforcement as a component of a behavior support plan results in improved outcomes for children with persistent challenging behavior (Blair et al., 2010), including increased on-task behavior and reduction in challenging behavior (von Schulz et al., 2018; Wood et al., 2011). A smaller number of studies has been conducted which analyzed positive reinforcement independent of an intervention package. These studies provide further evidence of the effectiveness of this strategy on reducing challenging behaviors and increasing on-task behavior for young children with persistent challenging behavior (Fullerton et al., 2009; Stormont et al., 2007).

Guidelines for How to Use Positive Reinforcement

When using positive reinforcement with young children, it is important to first consider the evidence base and recommended practices for working with young children and their families. Although the principles underlying positive reinforcement are the same no matter a student’s age, there are special considerations for implementation in early childhood. Guidelines for using positive reinforcement with young children are illustrated in Figure 1 and described in the sections that follow. These guidelines align with recommendations both in early childhood (National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], 2009) and early childhood special education (Division for Early Childhood [DEC], 2014). NAEYC’s guiding framework is the use of Developmentally Appropriate Practices, which involves using practices that are appropriate based on the child’s age, sociocultural and family background, and individual strengths and needs (NAEYC, 2009). DEC’s guiding framework is the use of Recommended Practices. There are 66 Recommended Practices, and they are organized into eight topic areas: leadership, assessment, environment, family, instruction, interaction, teaming and collaboration, and transition.

Figure 1.

Guidelines for using positive reinforcement in early childhood.

These professional organizations’ recommendations include guidance related to providing effective, developmentally appropriate instruction; individualizing instruction and experiences to meet children’s diverse strengths and needs; supporting children’s inclusion in natural environments and with engaging curriculum; encouraging positive interactions and healthy social-emotional development; and collaborating meaningfully with families. The recommendations of these professional organizations reflect the philosophical underpinnings of early childhood education and decades of empirical evidence. Their recommendations are central to an understanding of how to appropriately and effectively provide positive reinforcement to support child learning and appropriate behavior.

We have identified eight guidelines for planning, implementing, and evaluating the use of positive reinforcement with young children (see Figure 1). A checklist of behaviors related to each guideline is provided in Table 1 to assist teachers in implementing the guidelines. This checklist can be used as a planning tool or to collect data on implementation of the guidelines. We describe each guideline in the sections that follow and use vignettes to demonstrate the guidelines. Vignettes center around Ms. Denise, a teacher in an inclusive preschool classroom who is interested in learning more about how to effectively use positive reinforcement. We also describe how the guidelines align with professional standards in Table 2.

Table 1.

Guidelines Checklist.

Item	Yes	No	Notes
Guideline 1: Determine child preferences
Do at least one of the following to determine preferences:• Informally observe child• Ask child• Conduct preference assessment
Use a choice board to allow child to choose reinforcer
Guideline 2: Use of a variety of potential reinforcers
Consider what potential reinforcers will be effective for reinforcing the desired behavior
Use natural reinforcement when possible
Pair contrived reinforcement with more natural reinforcement
Use the least intrusive reinforcer possible
Guideline 3: Consider children’s strengths and needs
Provide reinforcement contingent on child’s effort
Provide reinforcement immediately after desired behavior
Teach child to use a token board as appropriate
Consider child’s receptive language abilities when using descriptive praise
If using classroom-wide reinforcement systems, ensure• Desired behaviors are acknowledged• Previously earned acknowledgements are not lost• Children are not encouraged to be in competition with one another
Guideline 4: Use reinforcement strategically
Reinforce behaviors regularly when first teaching a desired behavior
Move to intermittent reinforcement as children make progress
Thin reinforcement to natural schedule
Guideline 5: Embed reinforcement in routines and activities
Reinforce desired behaviors in naturally occurring routines and activities
Provide multiple opportunities to teach and reinforce desired behaviors
Use activity matrix to plan embedded learning opportunities
Guideline 6: Consider the role of relationships
Build relationships with children by• Having conversations with them• Playing with them• Learning about their family and culture• Showing interest in their lives and experiences
Use reinforcement with all children, including those who struggle with appropriate and desired behaviors
Guideline 7: Collaborate with families
Consider family priorities and concerns when planning what behaviors to reinforce (i.e., when identifying desired behaviors to target for instruction)
Consult with families before using edible reinforcement
Guideline 8: Evaluate reinforcement effectiveness
Collect data on child behavior
Collect data on teacher implementation of intervention components
Evaluate if child is making progress and, if not, make changes to intervention components

Table 2.

Connections to Recommended Practices and Developmentally Appropriate Practices.

Guideline	Connections to DEC Recommended Practices	Connections to NAEYC guidelines for Developmentally Appropriate Practices
Determine child preferences	INS1. Practitioners, with the family, identify each child’s strengths, preferences, and interests to engage the child in active learning.	2.F.1. To help children develop initiative, teachers encourage them to choose and plan their own learning activities.2.E.2. Teachers present children with opportunities to make meaningful choices, especially in child-choice activity periods. They assist and guide children who are not yet able to enjoy and make good use of such periods.
Use a variety of potential reinforcers	INS4. Practitioners plan for and provide the level of support, accommodations, and adaptations needed for the child to access, participate, and learn within and across activities and routines.	2.J.1. Teachers incorporate a wide variety of experiences, materials and equipment, and teaching strategies to accommodate the range of children’s individual differences in development, skills and abilities, prior experiences, needs, and interests.
Consider children’s strengths and needs	INS10 Practitioners implement the frequency, intensity, and duration of instruction needed to address the child’s phase and pace of learning or the level of support needed by the family to achieve the child’s outcomes or goals.	2.G. Teachers know how and when to scaffold children’s learning—that is, providing just enough assistance to enable each child to perform at a skill level just beyond what the child can do on his or her own.
Use reinforcement strategically	INS4. Practitioners plan for and provide the level of support, accommodations, and adaptations needed for the child to access, participate, and learn within and across activities and routines.	2.G. Teachers . . . gradually reduc[e] the support as the child begins to master the skill . . . setting the stage for the next challenge.
Embed reinforcement	E1. Practitioners provide services and supports in natural and inclusive environments during daily routines and activities to promote the child’s access to and participation in learning experiences.INS5. Practitioners embed instruction within and across routines, activities, and environments to provide contextually relevant learning opportunities.	3.D.1. Teachers plan curriculum experiences that integrate children’s learning within and across the domains (physical, social, emotional, cognitive) and the disciplines (including language, literacy, mathematics, social studies, science, art, music, physical education, and health).
Consider the role of relationships	INT1. Practitioners promote the child’s social-emotional development by observing, interpreting, and responding contingently to the range of the child’s emotional expressions.INT2. Practitioners promote the child’s social development by encouraging the child to initiate or sustain positive interactions with other children and adults during routines and activities through modeling, teaching, feedback, or other types of guided support.	1.B. Relationships are an important context through which children learn.1.E. Practitioners ensure members of the community feel psychologically safe. The overall social and emotional climate is positive.
Collaborate with families	F4. Practitioners and the family work together to create outcomes or goals, develop individualized plans, and implement practices that address the family’s priorities and concerns and the child’s strengths and needs.	2.B.1. Teachers establish positive personal relationship with each child and with each child’s family to better understand that child’s individual needs interests and abilities and that family’s goals, values, expectations, and child-rearing practices.5.F. Practitioners involve families as a source of information about the child (before program entry and on an ongoing basis) and engage them in the planning for their child.

Source. Adapted from DEC (2014) and NAEYC (2009).

Note. DEC = Division for Early Childhood; NAEYC = National Association for the Education of Young Children.

Guideline 1: Determine Child Preferences

Understanding child preferences is essential to the effective use of positive reinforcement. This can be done through the use of preference assessment data to inform reinforcer selection. Preference assessments are used to systematically determine what items children prefer relative to other items. Older children and some younger children may simply be able to tell the teacher what they prefer in response to a question. Teachers also may be able to determine child preferences through informal observation. However, preference assessments are an effective and important tool to use with young children who might not be able to verbalize what they prefer or whose preferences change frequently. Types of preference assessments are described in Table 3 and include free operant, single stimulus, paired stimulus, multiple stimulus without replacement, and multiple stimulus with replacement (Chazin & Ledford, 2016).

Table 3.

Preference Assessment Descriptions.

Type	Steps
Free operant	• Identify several potential preferred items.• Place all items in a location the child can access (e.g., placed around a room).• Observe child’s response to and duration of play with the items.• Repeat for several sessions.• Summarize the data to determine the most preferred items (i.e., ones the child approached most often and played with the longest).
Single stimulus	• Identify several potential preferred items.• Present child with items one at a time.• Observe child’s response to and duration of play with each item.• Repeat for several sessions.• Summarize the data to determine the most preferred items (i.e., ones the child played with the longest).• Note: Also can be used to determine preferred edibles.
Paired stimulus	• Identify several potential preferred items.• Present child with two items at a time and direct child to select one.• Allow the child to play with the item for a predetermined amount of time (e.g., 1 min), and then request item back (e.g., “My turn!”).• Repeat with all remaining combinations of items, varying how items are placed (to detect if the child systematically picks items placed on the right or left side).• Repeat for several sessions.• Summarize the data to determine the most preferred items (i.e., ones the child chose the most).• Note: Also can be used to determine preferred edibles.
Multiple stimulus without replacement	• Identify several potential preferred items.• Present the items in a row in front of the child and direct child to select one.• Allow the child to play with the item for a predetermined amount of time, and then request item back.• Vary how items are placed (to detect if the child systematically picks items placed on the right or left side).• Direct the child to choose from the remaining items.• Repeat until no items remain.• Repeat for several sessions.• Summarize the data to determine the most preferred items (i.e., ones the child chose the most).• Note: Also can be used to determine preferred edibles.
Multiple stimulus with replacement	• Identify several potential preferred items.• Present the items in a row in front of the child and direct child to select one.• Allow the child to play with the item for a predetermined amount of time.• While the child plays with the item, replace the items that were not selected with new items.• Request the first item from the child and place it back as a potential choice.• Vary how items are placed (to detect if the child systematically picks items placed on the right or left side).• Direct the child to choose from the remaining items.• Repeat several times.• Repeat for several sessions.• Summarize the data to determine the most preferred items (i.e., ones the child chose the most).• Note: Also can be used to determine preferred edibles.

Some preference assessments require specific prerequisite skills, such as scanning items, reaching for a desired item, or relinquishing an item when directed by a teacher. Therefore, choosing a preference assessment is best completed with careful consideration of the child’s skills. For more information about different types of preference assessments, how to conduct them correctly and effectively, how to choose between preference assessments, and how often to conduct them, see https://ebip.vkcsites.org/preference-assessments/ (Chazin & Ledford, 2016). Consider the following example of how a multiple stimulus without replacement preference assessment could be used to identify potential reinforcers:

Ms. Denise decides to use a preference assessment to determine what toys one of her children, Almira, prefers. Ms. Denise knows that Almira can choose from a field of five options and that she does not usually protest when having to give back a toy. Therefore, Ms. Denise decides to use the multiple stimulus without replacement preference assessment. She picks five toys and puts them on a table in front of Almira. She says, “Almira, here is a teddy bear, a spinner, a rocket, a popper, and a squeeze ball. Choose one.” When Almira chooses one, Ms. Denise allows her to play with it for a minute and then requests it back by saying, “3, 2, 1—my turn.” Almira then chooses from the remaining items. This process repeats until there are no items left. Ms. Denise conducts several sessions using the same toys over three days. She then reviews her data collection forms and determines that the popper and spinner are the most preferred items for Almira. Ms. Denise decides to provide Almira a choice between the two items when reinforcing desired behaviors exhibited by Almira.

In addition to preference assessments to determine preferred items, children can be provided with choices about what potential reinforcer is used. This can be done most easily with a choice board (see Figure 2), which can be used to provide children with two or more options from which to choose. Typically, picture representations of those options are provided. If multiple potential reinforcers are identified from a preference assessment, the most highly preferred items can be represented on a choice board to allow the child to choose the reinforcer. This also is a helpful strategy given that preferences often change based on factors such as satiation with an item, time of day, availability of other preferred items, and maturation. Using choice boards is an easy way to ensure a preferred item or activity is used as reinforcement. It also is consistent with the evidence-based practice of providing children with choices (DEC, 2014). Children can select items on a choice board by taking the item off, pointing to it, or directing their eye gaze toward it. If a child cannot understand picture representations of choices, actual objects can be used.

Figure 2.

Choice board.

Guideline 2: Use a Variety of Potential Reinforcers

When identifying potential reinforcers, first consider what will be effective for the behavior targeted for instruction. For example, providing descriptive praise may work for increasing following behavior expectations, but may not be effective for increasing asking for a turn with a toy (rather than taking the toy). The natural reinforcement of getting the desired object is a more salient reinforcer than praise. In addition, the effectiveness of potential reinforcers will vary based on the child, as well as the behavior targeted for instruction. One way of categorizing reinforcers is by their formal properties (J. O. Cooper et al., 2007). These categories include social (e.g., praise or a high five), tangible (e.g., desired toy), edible (e.g., fish cracker), and activity (e.g., singing a favorite song) reinforcers. These reinforcers are socially mediated because another person provides access to (or escape from) them. Reinforcers can also be thought of along a continuum from natural to contrived. Natural reinforcers are directly related to the child’s behavior and mimic the everyday reinforcement of behaviors. For example, if Lexi, who has a goal of using two-word utterances, says, “My ball!” and points to the ball, the natural reinforcer would be that Lexi receives the ball. Similarly, if Andrew, who is working on requesting items from peers, asks Samir for a turn with the playdough rolling pin, the natural reinforcer would be that Andrew gets the rolling pin. An example of a contrived reinforcer would be giving Andrew a piece of candy when he asks Samir for a turn. This reinforcer does not occur naturally in the environment and is not logically connected with Andrew’s behavior. Whenever possible, choose the more natural reinforcers or pair natural reinforcers with contrived reinforcers (Koegel et al., 2009). For example, Andrew’s teacher could provide a piece of candy and ensure Andrew gets the rolling pin. When considering the types of positive reinforcement to provide, teachers also must consider the intrusiveness of providing the reinforcer. Social reinforcement, whether descriptive praise (e.g., “You did a great job of asking if you could play!”) or physical or gestural reinforcement (e.g., a thumbs up or high five), can be less intrusive than providing a preferred toy or food that may distract attention from the interaction.

There are many decision points involved in choosing a potential reinforcer. These decisions can be facilitated by using the decision-making flowchart in Figure 3. The use of this decision-making process can help practitioners use more natural reinforcers and consider children’s developmental needs when determining how to provide reinforcement.

Figure 3.

Reinforcement selection decision-making flowchart.

Ronald is a child in Ms. Denise’s preschool classroom. Ronald engages in solitary play, and Ms. Denise would like to help him engage in play with others. She decides the first step is to teach Ronald to play in proximity to peers. Ms. Denise needs to decide what type of reinforcer to use to encourage this behavior, so she uses the decision-making flowchart in Figure 3. She knows that Ronald does not yet find playing in proximity to peers naturally reinforcing. Therefore, she next considers whether Ronald is motivated by adult praise. This sometimes has an impact on his behavior, but it does not always work. She then considers whether a tangible or activity reinforcer would be distracting to the ongoing activity. She decides that if she provides a high-interest toy or game that can be used by multiple children, it will not be disruptive to the ongoing activity. In fact, she thinks it could work well to reinforce the desired behavior and prolong the amount of time Ronald is in proximity to peers. She decides to use a choice board with visuals depicting several multi-person toys or games (e.g., large floor puzzle). When Ronald plays in proximity to one or more peers in centers, she provides the choice board to Ronald to allow him to choose a toy that he can play with those peers. She also pairs this with descriptive praise (e.g., “Ronald, you are doing a great job playing near Jenny and Arturo. You get to pick a special game to play with them.”).

Guideline 3: Consider Children’s Strengths and Needs

When identifying how positive reinforcement will be provided, developmental strengths and needs of young children with and without identified delays need to be considered. First, reinforcement is best applied when contingent on the child’s effort. For example, Darius’s clean-up behaviors might be reinforced when he cleans up dramatic play by himself without help, while Suzie’s clean-up behaviors might be reinforced when she puts three blocks on the shelf in the block center. This is because Darius and Suzie have different skill levels and needs related to cleaning up.

Call-Out Box 1.

Responding to Concerns About Fairness.

Sometimes teachers are concerned that it is unfair to provide different reinforcers to children. For example, a teacher might object to providing time at the computer to reinforce one child’s appropriate behavior when that is not an option for other children. Teachers may also worry that other children will get upset or act out to get access to a reinforcer. It is important to remember that equity does not mean treating everyone the same. Rather, it involves providing each child with what they need. Additionally, if other children wonder why a child is getting access to a special item or treat when they are not, the teacher can make a simple statement, such as, “Tina is getting some extra help to follow the classroom rules.”

Second, young children need reinforcers delivered immediately after the skill or behavior that is being reinforced. Young children are concrete thinkers and are developing their ability to attend for longer periods of time. Immediate delivery of reinforcers allows young children to make the connection between the desired behavior or skill and the reinforcement. When planning for systematic reinforcement to support skills or behaviors of young children, teachers need to consider what reinforcers can be delivered quickly after the demonstration of the desired behavior or skill. Some reinforcers, including activity reinforcers, may be difficult to deliver immediately. Once children learn the relationship between desired behavior and the reinforcement that results, it is often possible to introduce a token board. A token board is a system in which a child is given a token, such as a sticker or checker, for the performance of desired behaviors. When the child has acquired enough tokens, the tokens are exchanged for access to a valued reinforcer (see Figure 4). This is one way of extending the time between the desired behavior and the delivery of the primary reinforcer.

Figure 4.

Token board.

The ability of a young child to understand what they hear (i.e., receptive language) is another important factor when considering how verbal social reinforcement (i.e., descriptive praise) is delivered. For example, descriptive praise such as “Simone, you did a great job using walking feet in the hallway. That keeps you safe!” might be appropriate for Simone, but for a child with receptive language delays, a comment such as “Nice walking!” might be more appropriate, and, importantly, still describes the child’s appropriate behavior.

Classroom-wide systems for earning reinforcement are often used with students of all ages. However, it is critically important to consider young children’s developmental needs when using classroom-wide systems. Strategies that may be appropriate with older students, such as response cost systems and competition among small groups or classes, are not appropriate in early childhood classrooms. Appropriate classroom-wide systems can be used if they focus on positive reinforcement of desired behaviors (rather than punishment) and foster cooperative attitudes (rather than competition).

Ms. Denise decides to start using a classroom-wide reinforcement system. When a child receives descriptive praise for following a classroom rule, the child also is allowed to put a marble in a jar. When the jar is full of marbles, the class has a celebration. Marbles are never taken away, and children are not in competition to see who can add the most marbles.

Guideline 4: Use Reinforcement Strategically

The goal of using reinforcement with young children is to promote use of the skills or behaviors in real-life contexts that sustain over time. There are several strategies teachers can use to support generalization and maintenance of behaviors: (a) using more natural (over contrived) reinforcers, (b) using intermittent reinforcement, and (c) thinning reinforcement.

Natural reinforcers support generalization and maintenance of behaviors; however, often natural reinforcers must be paired with more contrived reinforcers when first teaching a behavior. For example, Shannon preferred to be carried places rather than walking. When she was put on the floor and requested to walk, she protested with whining noises, tantrums, and by “going limp.” Shannon also enjoyed watching the television show “Barney.” Ms. Denise sang a song from this television show when Shannon walked to reinforce Shannon’s walking behavior. Over time, Ms. Denise was able to stop singing while Shannon walked, as the natural reinforcer of getting from place to place efficiently and receiving teacher praise became reinforcing of the desired behavior.

Teachers also must consider providing reinforcement intermittently. This can be done using a schedule of reinforcement. For example, a teacher could reinforce a desired behavior every third time it is demonstrated (fixed ratio 3) or approximately every third time (variable ratio 3). The teacher could also use a fixed interval or variable interval schedule. This involves waiting a specific period of time before reinforcing a behavior. Using intermittent reinforcement also can be done in conjunction with delaying access to the primary reinforcer. This is done through the use of a token board.

Reinforcement also needs to be thinned over time. This means increasing the number of responses required before a behavior is reinforced or increasing the duration of time that elapses before a behavior is reinforced. Eventually, as children maintain and generalize the target skill, the reinforcement is thinned such that it is provided on a natural, intermittent schedule similar to what all children receive.

When Tyler, a child in Ms. Denise’s classroom, was first learning to sit at circle, he received an edible treat every two minutes, contingent on sitting quietly without screaming. After he reliably demonstrated appropriate circle behaviors, this was changed to receiving a token, instead of an edible treat, every two minutes. Then, at the end of circle, Tyler received an edible treat if his token board was full. Eventually, the token board use was thinned so that Tyler received one token every four minutes instead of two minutes. Then the duration of the interval was changed to every eight minutes. Finally, the token board and edible treat was removed altogether as Tyler was able to sit appropriately without additional reinforcement. However, although Tyler no longer needed token or edible reinforcement to sit at circle, Ms. Denise sometimes provided descriptive praise to him and other children about their attentive circle behavior.

Guideline 5: Embed Reinforcement in Routines and Activities

One of the primary tenets of instruction in early childhood is embedding learning in ongoing, naturally occurring routines and activities (DEC, 2014). Through embedding instruction, children learn to use the skills and behaviors in context. Providing reinforcement during this embedded instruction promotes the use of target skills in context.

When Jacoria was learning to take turns with peers, Ms. Denise planned an activity with a game that Jacoria could play with Jackson. Before they played, Ms. Denise reminded Jacoria, “Remember, you take a turn, then Jackson takes a turn, and then it’s your turn again.” She also showed Jacoria a picture board with “my turn” and “your turn” pictures. When Jacoria waited for Jackson to take his turn after her, Ms. Denise said, “You waited for Jackson to take his turn. Way to go!” and gave Jacoria a high five. Ms. Denise embedded instruction in a typical classroom activity and provided reinforcement during that activity to promote Jacoria’s behavior.

Multiple opportunities to demonstrate a behavior can be provided throughout the day. An activity matrix is a planning tool that can be used to support embedded instruction (Gauvreau & Sandall, 2018). Typically, in activity matrices (see Table 4 for an example), the activities are listed in the left column and the target behaviors are written in the top row. Then, the teacher can specify how opportunities will be provided to teach and reinforce the desired behavior in each activity.

Table 4.

Activity Matrix.

Activity	Child: JacoriaSkill: Taking turns	Child: ShannonSkill: Walking	Child: TylerSkill: Participating in non-preferred activities
Arrival		Walking into classroomInstruction: Visual reminderReinforcement: Barney song and praise
Table activities	Practice turn-taking games with table toys (e.g., Heigh-Ho Cherry-O).Instruction: My turn, your turn visuals; reminders before activityReinforcement: Praise and high five
Circle	Practice listening to others at sharing timeInstruction: Speaking, listening visuals; reminders before activityReinforcement: Praise and token board		Sitting at circleInstruction: Visual schedule, include favorite story or song in circleReinforcement: Token board, edible
Centers	Practice taking turns with high-interest toys (i.e., shopping cart, cash register)Instruction: Reminders before activity; timerReinforcement: Praise and token board		Participating in math centerInstruction: Visual schedule, reminder to go to center, choice board at centerReinforcement: Token board, edible
Playground	Practice taking turns with high-interest equipment (i.e., swings)Instruction: Reminders before activity; timerReinforcement: Praise and token board	Walking from classroom to playgroundInstruction: Visual reminderReinforcement: Barney song and praise

Ms. Denise had greatly increased her use of positive reinforcement in her classroom. However, she felt like she might be missing opportunities to provide instruction and reinforcement throughout the day. Therefore, she decided to use an activity matrix to help her plan her instruction. Because it was her first time using an activity matrix, she decided to include just a few children on the matrix at first.

Guideline 6: Consider the Role of Relationships

Strong relationships between adults and children are foundational to supporting young children’s learning. Relationships between young children and their teachers are strong when children feel safe and cared for, and when they trust adults. Strong relationships have been shown to be related to lower levels of aggression and better social-emotional outcomes in young children (Meehan et al., 2003; Sabol & Pianta, 2012). Responsive adults support children in identifying and appropriately navigating their emotions in the context of the classroom (Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2003). Teachers build these relationships by connecting with the child through discussing experiences and people that are important to the child, showing knowledge of and interest in the child’s cultural and linguistic background, and providing encouragement as the child tries and learns new skills. Strong relationships also provide context for adults to observe what skills children need to develop and to better understand why children may exhibit undesired behaviors or struggle with certain skills.

When providing reinforcement for desired behaviors, teachers must ensure they are enhancing established relationships with children. Teachers can do this by individualizing their instruction and reinforcement to meet each child’s needs and capitalize on each child’s preferences. They can also reflect on whether they are providing reinforcement to all children, including children who struggle the most with appropriate behavior. This can be done by using activity matrices (see Table 4 and Guideline 5 above).

In Ms. Denise’s classroom, Sabina often had trouble following directions given by adults. Ms. Denise noticed that she was focused on providing corrections to Sabina when she failed to follow directions. To focus more on providing reinforcement for desired behavior, Ms. Denise added Sabina to her activity matrix. She used the matrix to plan time in each activity of the day to “catch” Sabina following a direction and reinforce that behavior.

Guideline 7: Collaborate With Families

Collaboration with families is another tenet of early childhood education. For example, in early childhood special education, a recommended practice is to create outcomes, develop plans, and implement practices that are reflective of family priorities and concerns (DEC, 2014). Similarly, in early childhood education, practitioners are cautioned to ensure that “experiences in the program or school are meaningful, relevant, and respectful for each child and family” (NAEYC, 2009, p. 10).

Teachers can work to ensure that the positive reinforcement that is provided in the classroom or care setting aligns with the desires and beliefs of the family. Teachers also may collaborate with families to identify reinforcers that can be used consistently across contexts. In addition, teachers can share information with families about children’s progress and the use of intervention and reinforcement strategies that positively impact children’s use of desired behavior.

Sabina, the child who struggled with following directions in Ms. Denise’s classroom, began to show improvement with this behavior in the classroom. However, even as she made progress in school, her foster mother shared that she often did not comply with directions at home. Ms. Denise realized she had not worked to include the foster family in her plan for addressing this behavior. She scheduled time to talk with Sabina’s foster mother when she picked Sabina up at the end of the day. She shared the strategies that early childhood educators had been using successfully in the classroom and created a tip sheet for using the strategies at home. She then checked back in with Sabina’s foster family every week to see if progress was being made and offer additional support as needed.

Call-Out Box 2.

Family Concerns With Edible Reinforcement.

Edible reinforcers can be powerful reinforcers for some young children who may not respond to other types of reinforcers. However, families may express concerns about the use of edible reinforcers for a number of reasons. They may have valid concerns about their child’s weight or the child’s intake of edible reinforcers that contain ingredients or additives that are considered unhealthy (e.g., sugar, food dyes). Their child may have severe food allergies which can raise concerns about any additional or unknown foods being given to the child. It is important when choosing to use edible reinforcers with young children that families are consulted to determine which edible reinforcers are appropriate, if any alternate reinforcers are available, and/or how the edible reinforcement will be faded or replaced as the child learns the behaviors being reinforced.

Guideline 8: Evaluate Reinforcement Effectiveness

Teachers must evaluate the effectiveness of their reinforcement (and other intervention components) and make data-based decisions targeting continuous program improvement. This requires ongoing data collection. Data can be collected on the frequency, duration, or latency of the child’s desired behavior and the fidelity of teacher implementation of the intervention, including the reinforcement. Analysis of these data allows teachers to evaluate whether the desired behavior is increasing. If it is not (and the teacher is implementing the intervention with fidelity), a change in reinforcer might be needed. For example, the child’s preferences might have changed, or the child might need a stronger reinforcer. If the child is regularly demonstrating the desired behavior, the teacher might decide to thin the reinforcement.

Every two weeks, Ms. Denise reviewed her data on Jacoria’s turn-taking with peers. She realized that Jacoria was making significant progress taking turns during table activities and circle. However, the data showed that Jacoria was still struggling to take turns at center time with high-interest toys and on the playground. After talking with her teaching team and checking with Jacoria’s parents, Ms. Denise decided to use a stronger reinforcer for Jacoria during these activities. Every time Jacoria filled her token board during centers and on the playground, she was given the choice between two edible treats. After only a week of implementation, Ms. Denise observed the data for Jacoria’s turn-taking improving.

Implementing Guidelines

The eight guidelines described above provide direction for how to plan, implement, and evaluate the use of positive reinforcement in early childhood contexts. These guidelines are not meant to be followed sequentially, but rather can be considered concurrently or in a variety of orders. For example, when identifying potential reinforcers, teachers need to consider child strengths and needs and family priorities and concerns. In addition, when evaluating the effectiveness of the reinforcement, a teacher might decide to assess a child’s preferences again.

Conclusion

Despite criticisms of positive reinforcement generally, and especially in early childhood education settings, research supports the use of positive reinforcement with young children. Positive reinforcement in a variety of forms can support young children with and without identified disabilities to acquire skills across developmental domains. However, planning and consistent implementation of recommended practices are necessary to ensure that the positive reinforcement is developmentally appropriate for early childhood settings. We have described eight guidelines and provided tools that can help teachers thoughtfully apply reinforcement strategies that are consistent with both research and recommended practices developed by national organizations for early childhood and early childhood special education.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

References

Barton

E. E.

Wolery

(2010). Training teachers to promote pretend play in young children with disabilities. Exceptional Children, 77, 85–106. https://doi.org/10.1177/001440291007700104

Blair

K. S. C.

Fox

Lentini

(2010). Use of positive behavior support to address the challenging behavior of young children within a community early childhood program. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 30, 68–79. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121410372676

Brauner

C. B.

Stephens

C. B.

(2006). Estimating the prevalence of early childhood serious emotional/behavioral disorders: Challenges and recommendations. Public Health Reports, 121, 303–310. https://doi.org/10.1177/003335490612100314

Camargo

S. P. H.

Rispoli

Ganz

Hong

E. R.

Davis

Mason

(2016). Behaviorally based interventions for teaching social interaction skills to children with ASD in inclusive settings: A meta-analysis. Journal of Behavioral Education, 25, 223–248. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-015-9240-1

Chazin

K. T.

Ledford

J. R.

(2016). Preference assessments. In Evidence-based instructional practices for young children with autism and other disabilities. http://vkc.mc.vanderbilt.edu/ebip/preference-assessments

Christensen-Sandfort

R. J.

Whinnery

S. B.

(2013). Impact of milieu teaching on communication skills of young children with autism spectrum disorder. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 32, 211–222. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121411404930

Cooper

J. L.

Masi

Vick

(2009). Social-emotional development in early childhood: What every policymaker should know. National Center for Children in Poverty, Columbia University.

Cooper

J. O.

Heron

T. E.

Heward

W. L.

(2007). Applied behavior analysis (2nd ed.). Pearson.

Dickinson

A. M.

(1989). The detrimental effects of extrinsic reinforcement on “intrinsic motivation.” The Behavior Analyst, 12, 1–15.

10.

Division for Early Childhood. (2014). DEC Recommended Practices in early intervention/early childhood special education 2014. http://www.dec-sped.org/recommendedpractices

11.

Egger

H. L.

Angold

(2006). Common emotional and behavioral disorders in preschool children: Presentation, nosology, and epidemiology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 313–337. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01618.x

12.

Fullerton

E. K.

Conroy

M. A.

Correa

V. I.

(2009). Early childhood teachers’ use of specific praise statements with young children at risk for behavioral disorders. Behavioral Disorders, 34, 118–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874290903400302

13.

Gartrell

(2004). The power of guidance: Teaching social-emotional skills in early childhood classrooms. Thomson/Delmar Learning.

14.

Gauvreau

Sandall

S. R.

(2018). Activity matrices: Tools for planning, organizing, and implementing instruction in early childhood settings. In Snyder

P. A.

Hemmeter

M. L.

(Eds.), Instruction: Effective strategies to support engagement, learning, and outcomes (pp. 37-49) (DEC Recommended Practice Monograph Series No. 4). Division for Early Childhood.

15.

Gilliam

W. S.

(2005). Prekindergarteners left behind: Expulsion rates in state prekindergarten systems. Foundation for Child Development.

16.

Goetz

E. M.

Baer

D. M.

(1973). Social control of form diversity and the emergence of new forms in children’s blockbuilding. Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, 6, 209–217.

17.

Hemmeter

M. L.

Fox

Hardy

J. K.

(2016). Supporting the implementation of tiered models of behavior support in early childhood settings. In Reichow

B. R.

Boyd

Barton

Odom

(Eds.), Handbook of early childhood special education (pp. 247–265). Springer.

18.

Jolstead

K. A.

Caldarella

Hansen

Korth

B. B.

Williams

Kamps

(2017). Implementing positive behavior support in preschools: An exploratory study of CW-FIT Tier 1. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 19, 48–60. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300716653226

19.

Kaiser

A. P.

Hancock

T. B.

Cai

Foster

E. M.

Hester

P. P.

(2000). Parent-reported behavioral problems and language delays in boys and girls enrolled in Head Start classrooms. Behavioral Disorders, 26, 26–41. https://doi.org/10.1177/019874290002600104

20.

Koegel

R. L.

Vernon

T. W.

Koegel

L. K.

(2009). Improving social initiations in young children with autism using reinforcers with embedded social interactions. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 39, 1240–1251. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-009-0732-5

21.

Kohn

(1999). Punished by rewards: The trouble with gold stars, incentive plans, A’s, praise, and other bribes. Houghton Mifflin.

22.

Kohn

(2001). Five reasons to stop saying, “good job!” Young Children, 56, 524–530.

23.

Lopez

Dewey

Barton

E. E.

Hemmeter

M. L.

(2017). The use of descriptive praise to increase diversity during easel painting. Infants & Young Children, 30, 133–146. https://doi.org/10.1097/IYC.0000000000000088.

24.

Matson

J. L.

Matson

M. L.

Rivet

T. T.

(2007). Social-skills treatments for children with autism spectrum disorders: An overview. Behavior Modification, 31, 682–707. https://doi.org/10.1177/0145445507301650

25.

Meehan

B. T.

Hughes

J. N.

Cavell

T. A.

(2003). Teacher-student relationships as compensatory resources for aggressive children. Child Development, 74, 1145–1157. https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1111/1467-8624.00598

26.

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (2009). Developmentally appropriate practice in early childhood programs serving children from birth through age 8 [Position statement]. https://www.naeyc.org/sites/default/files/globally-shared/downloads/PDFs/resources/position-statements/PSDAP.pdf

27.

Reinke

W. M.

Stormont

Herman

K. C.

Puri

Goel

(2011). Supporting children’s mental health in schools: Teacher perceptions of needs, roles, and barriers. School Psychology Quarterly, 26, 1–13. https://dx-doi-org.web.bisu.edu.cn/10.1037/a0022714

28.

Rimm-Kaufman

S. E.

Voorhees

M. D.

Snell

M. E.

La Paro

K. M.

(2003). Improving the sensitivity and responsivity of preservice teachers toward young children with disabilities. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 23, 151–163. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214030230030501

29.

Sabol

T. J.

Pianta

R. C.

(2012). Recent trends in research on teacher-child relationships. Attachment & Human Development, 14, 213–231. https://doi.org/10.1080/14616734.2012.672262

30.

Snell

M. E.

Berlin

R. A.

Voorhees

M. D.

Stanton-Chapman

T. L.

Hadden

(2012). A survey of preschool staff concerning problem behavior and its prevention in Head Start classrooms. Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions, 14, 98–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/1098300711416818

31.

Stormont

M. A.

Smith

S. C.

Lewis

T. J.

(2007). Teacher implementation of precorrection and praise statements in Head Start classrooms as a component of a program-wide system of positive behavior support. Journal of Behavioral Education, 16, 280–290. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10864-007-9040-3

32.

von Schulz

J. H.

Dufrene

B. A.

LaBrot

Z. C.

Tingstrom

D. H.

Olmi

D. J.

Radley

. . . Maldonado

(2018). An evaluation of the relative effectiveness of function-based consequent and antecedent interventions in a preschool setting. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 34, 134–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/15377903.2017.1403400

33.

Wood

B. K.

Ferro

J. B.

Umbreit

Liaupsin

C. J.

(2011). Addressing the challenging behavior of young children through systematic function-based intervention. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 30, 221–232. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121410378759