Abstract
Cooperative group activities in classrooms provide an opportunity for children to learn and demonstrate relationship skills, particularly when clear expectations and explicit instruction are provided. Relationship skills are one of the five competency areas of social and emotional learning. This article provides directions and illustrations for using cooperative group activities to improve the relationship skills of students with or at risk for emotional and behavioral disorders.
Keywords
Ms. Marx notices problems with student-to-student interactions in her fourth grade classroom but remains unsure of how to accurately describe the problems or how to address them. Ms. Marx also knows teacher judgment may have a bias or lack reference to the larger population outside of the classroom, school, or community. She wants to teach relationship skills but feels pressure to maximize academic instructional time. As a veteran teacher, Ms. Marx frequently uses cooperative learning strategies when teaching academics. It occurs to her that explicitly teaching cooperation strategies within the learning groups could promote relationship skills and provide opportunities for the demonstration of discrete social-emotional behaviors in the context of academics.
David is a student in Ms. Marx’s class who seems to promote conflict in the classroom, resist group activities, and disrupt learning activities by refusing to work with others. Ms. Marx has heard David say, “I don’t like to work with them,” “They always tease me,” or “I know no one likes me in this class.” Ms. Marx has previously addressed these problems with David by using functional behavior assessment data to implement a list of interventions, including providing choice for assignments, giving nongroup work options, supporting contingencies, and using reinforcers for successful group work behavior. Ms. Marx has also worked with the other students by precorrecting and reminding peers to be friendly and patient, providing lessons on tolerance, reading books to the class about including students with disabilities, and providing concrete suggestions on how to make friends. However, these strategies require 1:1 intervention and ongoing monitoring and, although the strategies support David in class, he is no closer to demonstrating success in independent or unaided cooperative group activities.
In addition, David is becoming prompt dependent and wants to know “what he will get” if he makes a choice to work in the group. The other students have also begun to ask what they will get for working in the group. Ms. Marx feels frustrated that classroom instructional time is taken away to continue to manage David and to orchestrate successful interactions. Ms. Marx worries that David may not have a teacher next year who can do the same. She wonders whether there is a way to teach skills and create natural contingencies that would support positive relationships. It seems to her that the students in the class with strong relationship skills get better at relationships, whereas those with poor skills get worse. Ideally, Ms. Marx would like to address these problems without encroaching on instructional time or further stigmatizing David as problematic. Ms. Marx decides to enhance their current practice of cooperative learning groups.
Relationship skills support healthy and positive relationships between people in society (Weissberg et al., 2015). They are one of the five social emotional learning (SEL) competencies, which also include self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and responsible decision making (Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning [CASEL], 2018; www.casel.org). Relationship skills encourage collaboration, problem solving, and socially responsible behavior (Beland, 2007; Weissberg et al., 2015) and are tied to positive school success and societal outcomes (Konishi & Wong, 2018). Relationship skills help students succeed academically and behaviorally across settings from childhood to young adulthood (Durlak et al., 2011; Jones, 2013; Weissberg et al., 2015). There are at least 95 studies investigating the benefit of relationship skills for students of different language, ethnicity, culture, gender, social class, and ability (Johnson et al., 2007). Improved relationship skills help prevent and reduce bullying in classrooms (Bridgeland et al., 2013). Furthermore, relationship skills are socially valid, with about 95% of all teachers believing relationship skills benefit all students and improve student skills for working together and reducing conflict (Cooper, 2017). Hutzel and colleagues (2010) noted that strong relationship skills improve student productivity and the willingness to engage in difficult tasks, as well as increase students’ sense of personal responsibility.
Conversely, students with poor relationship skills are more likely to be at risk for destructive behavior than students who have social support and strong peer relationships (Hutzel et al., 2010). The cooperation component of relationship skills is noted as absent for many students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD; Hoffman et al., 2015). Parents and educators describe uncooperative behaviors for students with EBD as refusals, lack of compromise, and oppositional behavior.
Students with EBD may demonstrate negative relationships with peers by acting aggressively, bullying, or violating classroom norms and expectations (Normand et al., 2010). Students with EBD, including those demonstrating internalizing problems such as anxiety, depression, and withdrawal behaviors, are likely to experience increased peer rejection and opportunities for victimization and bullying (Trach et al., 2018). Moreover, the literature reports students with EBD have deficits in social competence and interpersonal relationship skills with their teachers, peers, and parents (Landrum et al., 2003). While all students can benefit academically and socially when peer relationship skills are strong, teaching relationship skills like cooperation is often a low instructional priority and can be difficult to accomplish in instructional environments.
Cooperative learning activities help students develop and maintain relationship skills with their peers and teachers (Johnson et al., 2007; Slavin, 2014). Cooperative learning is a type of research-based peer-mediated intervention (PMI) generally described as efficient and effective (Dunn et al., 2017). In a number of studies, cooperative learning activities demonstrated improved outcomes for students (Akcay, 2016; Araban et al., 2012; Ghufron & Ermawati, 2018). Teachers and peers of students with EBD should be involved with each step of cooperative learning to enhance their social skills in the classroom (Bridgeland et al., 2013). However, simple grouping of students without explicit instruction is unlikely to promote skill-building, particularly for individuals with disabilities who are differentially affected by a lack of direct instruction. In this article, we provide directions and illustrations for teaching cooperation skills through cooperative learning group activities as an intervention to improve relationship skills for children with EBD. A list of resources for assessment and progress monitoring of skills is also included.
Initial Evaluation Process of Relationship Skills for Students
Table 1 provides a listing of evaluation tools that assess relationship skills in students and teachers. Evaluation of relationship skills is needed before teachers decide to use cooperative learning strategies to develop student relational proficiency. Valid evaluation tools help teachers understand students and classroom issues prior to using any strategies. Evaluation tools can identify strengths and deficits in conflict resolution skills, cooperation skills, development of participant and leadership skills, self-control/impulsivity, and communication. Formal or informal assessments provide a baseline for skills, providing data for goal setting and benchmarking. The nature of relationship skills is such that most evaluation tools are self-report or informant report. When engaging in classwide assessment of relationship skills or SEL, consider parent awareness, notification, and/or the use of anonymous ratings for group purposes. Figure 1 provides a sample home note that might be used to explain the purpose of surveys or ratings to families.
Relationship Skill Evaluation Tools.
A sample home note to explain the purpose of surveys.
Cooperative Learning
Macpherson (1999/2015) reported that cooperative learning “is part of a group of teaching/learning techniques where students interact with each other to acquire and practice the elements of a subject matter and to meet common learning goals” (p. 1). Cooperative learning is one of the PMIs with efficacy for building relationship skills for students with EBD (Mitchell et al., 2003). PMIs are a research-based practice that have demonstrated positive effects across a number of academic and social variables (Dunn et al., 2017; Haas et al., 2019; Herpratiwi et al., 2018). PMIs are strategies that create opportunities for peers to promote social behaviors for all students, including children with disabilities (Haas et al., 2019; Ryan et al., 2008). Some examples include peer modeling, peer monitoring, peer network strategies, peer tutoring, classwide peer tutoring (CWPT), peer-assisted learning strategies (PALS), classwide student tutoring teams, peer mentoring, and cooperative learning (Dunn et al., 2017; Ryan et al., 2004).
Cooperative learning has five essential components: positive interdependence, individual accountability, face-to-face promotive interaction, social skills, and group processing (Meisinger et al., 2004; see Table 2). Cooperative activities are instructional strategies implemented and administered by classroom teachers (Durlak et al., 2011). Learning outcomes promoted by cooperative learning strategies include efforts to achieve positive relationships among peers, and students’ psychological adjustment and social competence (see Figure 2; Johnson et al., 2007). The main content of cooperative learning is positive interdependence that promotes students working collaboratively in a group to share ideas and support success. Then, positive interdependence appears in promotive interaction, which is encouraging peers to achieve the group goal.
Five Elements of Cooperative Learning.
Outcomes of cooperative learning.
Figure 3 provides a listing of cooperative learning implementation steps for classroom teachers working with students with EBD. Students with EBD benefit in academic achievement, social skills, appropriate behaviors, and relationship skills by learning through cooperative activities (Durlak et al., 2011; Sutherland et al., 2000). PMI studies have shown improvement in relational skills for students with EBD (Blake et al., 2000; Christopher et al., 1991; Cochran et al., 1993; Kamps et al., 1999, 2000; Locke & Fuchs, 1995). Cooperative learning helps students with EBD interact, build understanding, and exchange information with their peers by creating positive interpersonal relationships, effective communication, and conflict resolution skills (Kaya et al., 2015). Furthermore, psychological health benefits including self-esteem and social skills development have been exhibited (Herpratiwi et al., 2018; Johnson et al., 2007).
Steps of cooperative learning in classroom with students with emotional and behavioral disorders (EBD).
Using Cooperative Learning Strategies in the Classroom
Cooperative learning strategies require suitable tasks for group work, positive interdependence, attention and class time from the teacher, small numbers of members (2–5 members), and guidance from the teacher during the process. Implementation of activities for cooperative learning includes the generic instructional steps of planning, introducing, monitoring, assessing, and processing (Johnson et al., 2007). During planning, a teacher will determine the specific techniques to form groups of students including consideration for how they may naturally or typically interact with each other. Next, in the introducing phase, the teacher explains the expectations and defines the required strategies to the students. Social skill instruction may need to be provided to students who lack the required skills (e.g., listening, asking a question, turn-taking; Lynch & Simpson, 2010). Third, monitoring involves actively supervising, providing task support to improve all students’ group skills through redirection and feedback, and collecting observation data. Assessing is the fourth step, in which the teacher evaluates formatively and summatively to check the understanding of students on the academic task and cooperation skills. The last step, processing, encourages students to evaluate their work goals and achievement and set goals to improve academic and cooperation skill work (see Figure 3). A link of resources that teachers or paraprofessionals can use to find additional information on collaboration for academic, social, and emotional learning is provided at https://casel.org/resources-support/ and https://drc.casel.org/resources/ (see Table 3).
Resources of Additional Information on Social and Emotional Learning (SEL).
Note. CASEL = Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning.
Step 1: Planning
The planning stage consists of determining the specific techniques or assessments that will be used. In this step, students with EBD should be grouped with peers who are familiar and who know how to interact with students with EBD.
Ms. Marx hears about SEL in school-based professional development, teacher book clubs, and professional learning communities (PLCs). Sometimes, these concepts seem to overlap due to terminology that describes the same thing in disparate ways. During Ms. Marx’s master’s program, she learned that there are differences and not all are equally supported as empirically-based concepts. Ms. Marx decides to look for valid assessments of the “relationship skills” to better understand student and classroom problems prior to planning strategies or interventions. She chooses the Student Observation Checklist of Civic Skills and Behaviors for Fourth and Fifth Grades (www.civicyouth.org) to rate and group students based on the categories of personal responsibility, caring for others and for community, and leadership. Ms. Marx selects the project the students will be working on as a group (e.g., the water cycle), determines the goal/outcome of the project (e.g., create a science comic strip that explains the water cycle), and establishes which cooperative skills are needed to achieve the goal (e.g., communication skills, perspective-taking skills, conflict resolution skills). Ms. Marx follows each step by using the checklist of cooperative learning strategies implementation integrity (see Table 4 for an integrity checklist).
A Checklist of Cooperative Learning Strategies Implementation Integrity.
Step 2: Introducing
In this step, the tasks and expectations will be explained to all the students. The required strategies, positive interdependence, and individual accountability will be defined. It is essential that the teacher ensures that all students, including those with EBD, understand exactly what is expected of them.
After teaching the whole group lesson on the basics of the water cycle, Ms. Marx divides the class into predetermined groups. Ms. Marx explains the assignment and provides the expectations regarding the necessary cooperative skills, including taking turns to talk, showing positive body language, and what to say when disagreeing with a peer. Ms. Marx provides additional instruction and opportunities to role play to the group that includes David.
Step 3: Monitoring
The monitoring stage consists of collecting observation data, providing support with feedback and redirection to increase the students’ group skills, and ensuring that students with EBD are participating in peer assistance. The teacher also ensures that the students with EBD have the opportunity to give feedback.
As the groups work on the project, Ms. Marx walks around the room and provides feedback, such as “Nice job listening to your group members,”“Thank you for using positive body language,” and “I see you are working together to finish the assignment.” Ms. Marx also uses the language taught as a component of the cooperative skills to provide redirection. For example, “Remember to use the words we learned to discuss a disagreement,” or “You are talking when your group member is talking. Remember to take turns.” Ms. Marx spends time in each group actively supervising, listening, answering questions, and observing how they are working together, especially David. At times, as part of the monitoring process, Ms. Marx takes data on which cooperative skills are used and how frequently. Furthermore, Ms. Marx uses a checklist about verbal behavior to evaluate how often David engages with peers.
Step 4: Assessing
In this step, assessment is provided during the task and after completion of the task to check for understanding. Students with EBD may need additional accommodations, such as frequent breaks or smaller group sizes.
After the group works on the project, Ms. Marx wants to make sure that students understand the lesson. Ms. Marx uses a variety of group assessment and self-assessment to determine the grade during the task and after completing the task. In addition to evaluating the water cycle project for accuracy, Ms. Marx reassesses the students with the Student Observation Checklist of Civic Skills and Behaviors for Fourth and Fifth Grades. She found that some students, including David, increased their levels of interpersonal relationship skills. The relationship-related problems (e.g., arguing, bullying, or not talking to each other) have occurred less frequently in class. She believes that students are likely to be more engaged in learning and are more actively involved in group activities.
Step 5: Processing
The final step is for students to process the task or activity. Students should discuss and evaluate how they work together and set goals to improve their work. Additional encouragement to participate in the processing phase may be required for students with EBD. It may be helpful to provide structured questions or task analysis checklists.
Once the assignment is complete, Ms. Marx leads a class discussion in which students talk about what worked well and what they can do differently to improve their performance during group work. Ms. Marx has the students choose a skill they will focus on improving in the next group activity and write it in their journal. Ms. Marx encourages the students to think about how they can apply those goals to other classes. Ms. Marx schedules a time to meet with David individually to briefly review what each thought he did well and what he can do differently in the future.
Promoting Generalization of Relationship Skills
Generalization of learned skills has been problematic for students with EBD (Maag, 2006). Teachers and paraprofessionals should encourage and promote generalization by (a) using cooperative learning strategies in different class subjects (e.g., reading, math, physical education), (b) supporting different people (e.g., other teachers, parents, siblings, therapists) in using cooperative learning strategies, and (c) using cooperative learning strategies with different groups of peers in the class (Yusuf et al., 2019). Maag (2006) also indicated that teachers could improve the likelihood of skill generalization by selecting target behaviors that are socially valid (i.e., important to the student or society) and by incorporating the peer group into the intervention.
Consideration of promoting generalization learned through cooperative learning interventions is specifically relevant for students with EBD, though prior research indicates that few studies of social skill interventions collect generalization data for students with EBD (Hutchins et al., 2019; Maag, 2006). Students with EBD need the opportunity and ability to generalize learned skills across settings and people.
Conclusion
Cooperative learning is a research-based strategy under the umbrella of PMIs with positive social and academic outcomes. Studies indicate cooperative learning encourages more social support and positive interpersonal relationships than individualistic learning activities or competition (Herpratiwi et al., 2018). Using cooperative learning to teach and support relationships skills in the context of academic instruction is efficient and effective. Clear expectations and explicit instruction of five steps to prepare cooperative learning may allow students with EBD to engage more fully in a positive experience. Such successes may create more opportunities for natural contingencies and decrease punitive social and academic exchanges. Successful cooperative learning activities may produce heightened academic and social achievement. Students who show concern for one another achieve more (Johnson et al., 2007; Slavin, 2014). With the utilization of cooperative learning strategies, teachers can support the development, enhancement, and generalization of essential relationship skills
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
