The purpose of this study was to investigate patterns of parenting in Korean mothers of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and identify major threads that structured various patterns of parenting. Q-methodology, a technique for extracting subjective attitudes, was used for data collection and analysis. Participants were asked to sort statements on issues associated with parenting. Factor analysis was applied to identify patterns in the ranking of statements. Participants were 45 Korean mothers of children with ADHD. As a result, three patterns of parenting emerged: Praise—Fairness, Strict—Control, and Sensitive Response—Balanced. These patterns differed on two axes: external and internal control and positive and negative reinforcement. This study provides an opportunity to enhance our understanding of the parenting patterns of mothers of children with ADHD in Korea. The findings can function as a cornerstone for developing future models of parenting children with ADHD and parent—child interactions.
American Psychiatric Association. (2000). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author .
2.
Anderson, C.A., Hinshaw, S.P., & Simmel, C. (1994). Mother-child interactions in ADHD and comparison boys: Relationship to overt and covert externalizing behavior. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 22, 247-265.
3.
Barkley, R.A. (1989). Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. In E. J., Mash & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Child psychopathology (pp. 63-112). New York: Guilford.
4.
Barkley, R.A. (2006). Attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder-A handbook for diagnosis and treatment (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford.
5.
Baumrind, D. (1967). Child care practices anteceding three patterns of preschool behavior. Genetic Psychology Monographs, 75(1), 43-48.
6.
Becker, W.C. (1964). Consequences of different kinds of parental discipline . In M. L. Hoffman & L.W. Hoffman (Eds.), Review of child development research (pp. 169-208). New York: Russell Sage Foundation.
7.
Bornstein, M., Hahn, C., Haynes, O., Belsky, J., Azuma, H., Kwak, K., et al. (2007). Maternal personality and parenting cognitions in cross-cultural perspectives. International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development, 31, 193-209.
8.
Brown, S.R. (1980). Political subjectivity: application of Q-methodology in political science. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
9.
Brown, S.R. (1986). Q-technique and method: Principles and procedures . In W. D. Berry, & M. S. Lewis-Beck (Eds.), New tools for social scientists: advances and applications in research methods (pp. 57-76). Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
10.
Bryant, L.D., Green, J.M., & Hewison, J. (2006). Understanding of Down's syndrome: A Q methodological investigation. Social Science & Medicine, 63, 1188-1200.
11.
Choi, K.S. (1997). Perception of children's filial piety, "Hyo" and child-rearing behavior in child development. Journal of Natural Science of Pusan Women's University, 3, 139-163.
12.
Chung, M.S. (2001). A qualitative study on the mother's experiences in raising children with ADHD. Unpublished master's thesis, Ewha Women University, Seoul, Korea.
13.
Collett, B.R., Gimpel, G.A., Greenson, J.N., & Gunderson, T.L. (2001). Assessment of discipline style among parents of preschool through school-age children. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 23, 163-170.
14.
Cunningham, C.E., & Barkley, R.A. (1979). The interaction of normal and hyperactive children with their mothers in free play and structured tasks. Child Development, 50, 217-224.
15.
Gerdes, A.C., & Hoza, B. (2006). Maternal attributions, affect, and parenting in attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and comparison families. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 35, 346-355.
16.
Gong, H.J., & Moon, J.U. (2004). A comparative study on mother's caring attitude between children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and normal children. Journal of Korean Society for Health Education and Promotion, 21, 297-317.
17.
Greenspan, S. (2006). Rethinking "harmonious parenting" using a three-factor discipline model. Child Care in Practice, 12(1), 5-12.
18.
Harvey, E., Danforth, J.S., Eberhardt, T., Ulaszek, W.R., & Friedman, J.L. (2003). Parenting of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD): The role of parental ADHD symptomatology. Journal of Attention Disorder, 7, 31-42.
19.
Johnston, C., & Mash, E.J. (2001). Families of children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: Review and recommendations for future research. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 4, 183-207.
20.
Johnston, C., Murray, C., Hinshaw, S.P., Pelham, W.E., & Hoza, B. (2002). Responsiveness in interactions of mothers and sons with ADHD: Relationships to maternal and child characteristics. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 77-88.
21.
Kendall, J. (1998). Outlasting disruption: The process of reinvestment in families with ADHD children. Qualitative Health Research , 8, 839-857.
22.
Kendall, J., Leo, M.C., Perrin, N., & Hatton D. (2005). Modeling ADHD child and family relationships. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 27, 500-518.
23.
Kendall, J., Hatton, D., Becket, A., & Leo, M. (2003). Children's accounts of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Advances in Nursing Science, 26, 114-139.
24.
Kendall, J., & Shelton, K. (2003). A typology of management styles in families with children with ADHD. Journal of Family Nursing, 9, 257-280.
25.
Khamis, V. (2006). Family environment and parenting as predictors of attention-deficit and hyperactivity among Palestinian children. Journal of Social Service Research, 32, 99-116.
26.
Kim, H.K. (1990). Understanding of Q-methodology: Applications to advertising. Seoul, Korea: Seokang University Press.
27.
Kim, J.S., & Park, S.Y. (1997). Maternal traditional-modern values, childrearing practices and children's social behavior. Korean Journal of Child Studies, 18, 125-142.
28.
Kim, D.S., Kim, H.S., Schwartz-Barcott, D., & Zucker, D. (2006). The nature of hope in hospitalized chronically ill patients. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 43, 547-556.
29.
Lin, M.J., Huang, X.Y., & Hung, B.J. (in press). The experiences of primary caregivers raising school-aged children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Clinical Nursing.
30.
Lindahl, K.M. (1998). Family process variables and children's disruptive behaviour problems. Journal of Family Psychology, 12, 420-436.
31.
Maccoby, E.E., & Martine, J.A. (1983). Socialization in the context of the family: Parent-child interaction. In P. H. Mussen & E. M. Heatherington (Eds.), Handbook of child psychology: Socialization, personality, and social development (pp. 1-101). New York: Wiley.
32.
Mash, E.J., & Johnston, C. (1982). A comparison of the mother-child interactions of younger and older hyperactive and normal children. Child Development, 53, 1371-1381.
33.
Mash, E.J., & Johnston, C. (1990). Determinants of parenting stress: Illustrations from families of hyperactive children and families of physically abused children . Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 19, 313-338.
34.
Mckee, T.E., Harvey, E., Danforht, J.S., Ulaszek, W.R., & Friedman, J.L. (2004). The relation between parental coping styles and parent-child interactions before and after treatment for children with ADHD and oppositional behavior. Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology, 33, 158-168.
35.
McLaughlin, D.P., & Harrison, C.A. (2006). Parenting practice of mothers of children with ADHD: The role of maternal and child factors. Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 11, 82-88.
36.
Modesto-Lowe, V., Danforth, J.S., & Brooks, D. (2008). ADHD: Does parenting style matter? Clinical Pediatrics, 47, 865-872.
37.
Monastra, V.J., Monastra, D.M., & George, S. (2002). The effects of stimulant therapy, EEG biofeedback, and parenting style on the primary symptoms of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 27, 231-249.
38.
Murray, C., & Johnston, C. (2006). Parenting in mothers with and without attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology , 115, 52-61.
39.
Oh, W.O., & Park, E.S. (2007). Parenting experiences of parents of children with ADHD: Approaching the normal. Journal of Korean Academy of Nursing, 37, 91-104.
40.
Park, E.S., Kim, E.K., Won, J.W., Oh, W.O., Suk, M.H., & Im, Y.J. (2002). The parent-child relationship in traditional society described in Korean classic novels. Journal of Child Health Nursing, 8, 469-481.
41.
Park, J., & Kwon, Y. (2009). Parental goals and parenting practices of upper-middle-class Korean mothers with preschool children. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 7, 58-75.
42.
Park, M., & Chesla, C. (2007). Revisiting Confucianism as a conceptual framework for Asian family study. Journal of Family Nursing, 13(3), 293-311.
43.
Peters, K., & Jackson, D. (2009). Mothers' experiences of parenting a child with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. Journal of Advanced Nursing, 65, 62-71.
44.
Podolski, C., & Nigg, J.T. (2001). Parent stress and coping in relation to child ADHD severity and associated child disruptive behavior problems. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 503-513.
45.
Schmolck, P. (2002). PQMethod (Version 2.11) [Computer software]. Neubiberg, Germany: University of the Bundeswehr Munich .
46.
Selekman, J., & Moore, C.K. (2004). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. In P. J. Allen & Vessey, J. A. (Eds.), Primary care of the child with a chronic condition (4th ed., pp. 198-216). St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
47.
Seipp, C.M., & Johnston, C. (2005). Mother-son interaction in families of boys with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder with and without oppositional behavior . Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 33, 87-98.
48.
Seo, M.J., Chang, E.J., Jung, C.H., & Chei, S.Y. (2003). The study of the parenting stress, depression and parenting efficacy on the mother of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder children. Korean Journal of Woman Psychology, 8, 69-81.
49.
Stainton, R.R. (1995). Q methodology. In J. A. Smith, R. Harre, & L. V. Langenhove (Eds.), Rethinking methods in psychology (pp. 172-178). London: Sage.
50.
Stephenson, W. (1953). The study of behavior: Q-technique and its methodology . Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
51.
Treacy, L., Tripp, G., & Baird, A. (2005). Parent stress management training for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Behavior Therapy, 36, 223-233.
52.
Whalen, C.K., & Henker, B. (1999). The child with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in family contexts. In H. C. Quay, & A. E. Hogan (Eds.), Handbook of disruptive behavior disorders (pp. 139-155). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
53.
Yang, S. (2008). Cane of love: Parental attitudes toward corporal punishment in Korea. British Journal of Social Work, Advance Access published on March 29, 2008; doi: doi:10.1093/ bjsw/bcn034.
54.
Yu, A.J. (1994). Traditional parenting style in Korea. Seoul, Korea: Seoul National University Press.
