Review Paper: The Use of Quality Improvement and Health Information Technology Approaches to Improve Diabetes Outcomes in African American and Hispanic Patients
Restricted accessReview articleFirst published online October, 2010
Review Paper: The Use of Quality Improvement and Health Information Technology Approaches to Improve Diabetes Outcomes in African American and Hispanic Patients
Differences in rates of diabetes-related lower extremity amputations represent one of the largest and most persistent health disparities found for African Americans and Hispanics compared with Whites in the United States. Since many minority patients receive care in underresourced settings, quality improvement (QI) initiatives in these settings may offer a targeted approach to improve diabetes outcomes in these patient populations. Health information technology (health IT) is widely viewed as an essential component of health care QI and may be useful in decreasing diabetes disparities in underresourced settings. This article reviews the effectiveness of health care interventions using health IT to improve diabetes process of care and intermediate diabetes outcomes in African American and Hispanic patients. Health IT interventions have addressed patient, provider, and system challenges in the provision of diabetes care but require further testing in minority patient populations to evaluate their effectiveness in improving diabetes outcomes and reducing diabetes-related complications.
Aarts, J., & Koppel, R.L. ( 2009). Implementation of computerized physician order entry in seven countries. Health Affairs (Millwood ), 28, 404-414.
2.
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. ( 2008). National healthcare disparities report 2007. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.
3.
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. ( 2009). National healthcare disparities report 2008. Rockville, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality.
4.
American Diabetes Association. (2008). Standards of medical care in diabetes-2008. Diabetes Care , 31(Suppl. 1), 12-54.
5.
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act. (2009 ). Public Law 111-5. Retrieved from http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgi-bin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=111_cong_bills&docid=f:h1enr.pdf
6.
Babamoto, K.S., Sey, K.A., Camilleri, A.J., Karlan, V.J., Catalasan, J., & Morisky, D.E. ( 2009). Improving diabetes care and health measures among Hispanics using community health workers: Results from a randomized controlled trial . Health Education & Behavior, 36, 113-126.
7.
Bach, P.B., Pham, H.H., Schrag, D., Tate, R.C., & Hargraves, J.L. (2004). Primary care physicians who treat blacks and whites. New England Journal of Medicine , 351, 575-584.
8.
Barrera, M., Jr., Glasgow, R.E., McKay, H.G., Boles, S.M., & Feil, E.G. ( 2002). Do Internet-based support interventions change perceptions of social support? An experimental trial of approaches for supporting diabetes self-management. American Journal of Community Psychology , 30, 637-654.
9.
Berwick, D.M. ( 2002). A user’s manual for the IOM’s ‘Quality Chasm’ report. Health Affairs ( Millwood), 21, 80-90.
10.
Blanchet, K.D. ( 2008). Telehealth and diabetes monitoring. Telemedicine and E-Health, 14, 744-746.
11.
Blumenthal, D. ( 2009). Stimulating the adoption of health information technology . West Virginia Medical Journal, 105(3), 28-29.
12.
Bray, P., Roupe, M., Young, S., Harrell, J., Cummings, D.M., & Whetstone, L.M. (2005). Feasibility and effectiveness of system redesign for diabetes care management in rural areas: The eastern North Carolina experience. The Diabetes Educator, 31, 712-718.
13.
Bray, P., Thompson, D., Wynn, J.D., Cummings, D.M., & Whetstone, L. ( 2005). Confronting disparities in diabetes care: The clinical effectiveness of redesigning care management for minority patients in rural primary care practices. Journal of Rural Health, 21, 317-321.
14.
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. ( 2008). National diabetes fact sheet: General information and national estimates on diabetes in the United States, 2007. Atlanta, GA: Author.
15.
Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services. ( 2009). Fact sheets: Details for Medicare and Medicaid Health Information Technology: Title IV of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act 2009. Retrieved from http://www.cms.hhs.gov/apps/media/press/factsheet.asp?Counter=3466&intNumPerPage
16.
Chaudhry, B., Wang, J., Wu, S., Maglione, M., Mojica, W., Roth, E., . . . Shekelle, P.G. (2006). Systematic review: Impact of health information technology on quality, efficiency, and costs of medical care. Annals of Internal Medicine, 144, 742-752.
17.
Cherry, J.C., Moffatt T.P., Rodriguez, C., & Dryden, K. ( 2002). Diabetes disease management program for an indigent population empowered by telemedicine technology. Diabetes Technology & Therapeutics, 4, 783-791.
18.
Chin, M.H., Cook, S., Drum, M.L., Jin, L., Guillen, M., Humikowski, C.A., . . . Schaefer, C.T. (2004). Improving diabetes care in Midwest community health centers with the health disparities collaborative . Diabetes Care, 27, 2-8.
19.
Chin, M.H., Drum, M.L., Guillen, M., Rimington, A., Levie, J.R., Kirchhoff, A.C., . . . Schaefer, C.T. (2007). Improving and sustaining diabetes care in community health centers with the health disparities collaboratives . Medical Care, 45, 1135-1143.
20.
Collins, T.C., Beyth, R.J., Nelson, D.B., Petersen, N.J., Suarez-Almazor, M.E., Bush, R.L., . . . Ashton, C.M. ( 2007). Process of care and outcomes in patients with peripheral arterial disease. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 22, 942-948.
21.
Cramer, J.S., Sibley, R.F., Bartlett, D.P., Kahn, L.S., & Loffredo, L. ( 2007). An adaptation of the diabetes prevention program for use with high-risk, minority patients with type 2 diabetes. The Diabetes Educator, 33, 503-508.
22.
Davidson, M.B., Ansari, A., & Karlan, V.J. ( 2007). Effect of a nurse-directed diabetes disease management program on urgent care/emergency room visits and hospitalizations in a minority population. Diabetes Care, 30, 224-227.
23.
Davis, K., Doty, M.M., Shea, K., & Stremikis, K. ( 2009). Health information technology and physician perceptions of quality of care and satisfaction. Health Policy, 90, 239-246.
24.
DesRoches, C.M., Campbell, E.G., Rao, S.R., Donelan, K., Ferris, T.G., Jha, A., . . . Blumenthal, D. (2008). Electronic health records in ambulatory care. A national survey of physicians. New England Journal of Medicine, 359, 50-60.
25.
Dillingham, T.R., Pezzin, L.E., & Mackenzie, E.J. (2002). Racial differences in the incidence of limb loss secondary to peripheral vascular disease: A population-based study. Archives of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 83, 1252-1257.
26.
Dixon, B.E., & Samarth, A. ( 2009). Innovations in using health IT for chronic disease management. Findings from the AHRQ Health IT Portfolio (AHRQ Publication No. 09-0029-EF) . Rockville, MD: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality. Retrieved from http://healthit.ahrq.gov/portal/server.pt/gateway/PTARGS_0_3882_840586_0_0_18/09-0029-EF_cdm.pdf
27.
Dorr, D., Bonner, L.M., Cohen, A.N., Shoai, R.S., Perrin, R., Chaney, E., & Young, A.S. ( 2007). Informatics systems to promote improved care for chronic illness: A literature review. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, 14, 156-163.
28.
Downs, S.H., & Black, N. ( 1998). The feasibility of creating a checklist for the assessment of the methodological quality both of randomized and non-randomized studies of health care interventions. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health, 52, 377-384.
29.
Duru, O.K., Gerzoff, R.B., Selby, J.V., Brown, A.F., Ackermann, R.T., Karter, A.J., . . . Mangione, C. M. (2009). Identifying risk factors for racial disparities in diabetes outcomes: The Translating Research into Action for Diabetes Study . Medical Care, 47, 700-706.
30.
Eng, T.R., Maxfield, A., Patrick, K., Deering, M.J., Ratzan, S.C., & Gustafson, D.H. (1998). Access to health information and support. A public highway or a private road? Journal of the American Medical Association, 280, 1371-1375.
31.
Eysenbach, G. ( 2008). Medicine 2.0: Social networking, collaboration, participation, apomediation, and openness. Journal of Medical Internet Research , 10(3), e22.
32.
Foxhall, K. ( 2009). Health IT stimulus bill zips to House floor. Government Health IT, 1/23/2009. Retrieved from http://www.govhealthit.com/newsitem.aspx?tid=79&nid=69532
33.
Gerber, B.S., Brodsky, I.G., Lawless, K.A., Smolin, L.I., Arozullah, A.M., Smith, E.V., ... Eiser, A.R. ( 2005). Implementation and evaluation of a low-literacy diabetes education computer multimedia application. Diabetes Care, 28, 1574-1580.
34.
Gibbons, M.C. ( 2005). A historical overview of health disparities and the potential of eHealth solutions. Journal of Medical Internet Research , 7(5), e50.
35.
Glasgow, R.E., Nutting, P.A., King, D.K., Nelson, C.C., Cutter, G., Gaglio, B., . . . Whitesides, H. (2005). Randomized effectiveness trial of a computer-assisted intervention to improve diabetes care. Diabetes Care, 28, 33-39.
36.
Gold, R., Yu, K., Liang, L.J., Adler, F., Balingit, P., Luc, P., ... Modilevsky, T. ( 2008). Synchronous provider visit and self-management education improves glycemic control in Hispanic patients with long-standing type 2 diabetes . The Diabetes Educator, 34(6), 990-995.
37.
Goldzweig, C.L., Towfigh, A., Maglione, M., & Shekelle, P.G. (2009). Costs and benefits of health information technology: New trends from the literature. Health Affairs (Millwood), 28, w282-w293.
38.
Goroll, A.H., Simon, S.R., Tripathi, M., Ascenzo, C., & Bates, D.W. ( 2009). Community-wide implementation of health information technology: The Massachusetts eHealth Collaborative experience. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, 16, 132-139.
39.
Halamka, J.D., Mandl, K.D., & Tang, P.C. ( 2008). Early experiences with personal health records. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, 15, 1-7.
40.
Harris, L.T., Haneuse, S.J., Martin, D.P., & Ralston, J.D. ( 2009). Diabetes quality of care and outpatient utilization associated with electronic patient-provider messaging: A cross-sectional analysis. Diabetes Care, 32, 1182-1187.
41.
Huang, E.S., Zhang, Q., Brown, S.E., Drum, M.L., Meltzer, D.O., & Chin, M.H. ( 2007). The cost-effectiveness of improving diabetes care in U.S. federally qualified community health centers. Health Services Research, 42(6 Pt 1), 2174-2193.
42.
Ingram, M., Torres, E., Redondo, F., Bradford, G., Wang, C., & O’Toole, M.L. (2007). The impact of promotoras on social support and glycemic control among members of a farmworker community on the US-Mexico border. The Diabetes Educator, 33(Suppl. 6), 172S-178S.
43.
Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). (1998). UK Prospective Diabetes Study (UKPDS) Group. Lancet, 352, 837-853.
44.
Jackson, C.L., Bolen, S., Brancati, F.L., Batts-Turner, M.L., & Gary, T.L. ( 2006). A systematic review of interactive computer-assisted technology in diabetes care. Interactive information technology in diabetes care. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 21, 105-110.
45.
Jha, A.K., DesRoches, C.M., & Campbell, E.G. (2009). Use of electronic health records in U.S. hospitals. New England Journal of Medicine , 360, 1628-1638.
46.
Jha, A.K., Orav, E.J., Li, Z., & Epstein, A.M. ( 2007). Concentration and quality of hospitals that care for elderly black patients. Archives of Internal Medicine, 167, 1177-1182.
47.
Jha, A.K., Orav, E.J., Zheng, J., & Epstein, A.M. ( 2008). The characteristics and performance of hospitals that care for elderly Hispanic Americans. Health Affairs ( Millwood), 27, 528-537.
48.
Joshu, C.E., Rangel, L., Garcia, O., Brownson, C.A., & O’Toole, M.L. (2007). Integration of a promotora-led self-management program into a system of care. The Diabetes Educator, 33(Suppl. 6), 151S-158S.
49.
Katz, S.J., Nissan, N., & Moyer, C.A. ( 2004). Crossing the digital divide: Evaluating online communication between patients and their providers. American Journal of Managed Care, 10, 593-598.
50.
Kim, Y., Chen, A.H., Keith, E., Yee, H.F., & Krushei, M.B. ( 2009). Not perfect, but better: Primary care providers’ experiences with electronic referrals in a safety net health system. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 24, 614-619.
51.
King, A., Wolfe, G., Healy, S., Lineham, T., Harrison, S., Ponzio, C., & Armstrong, D. ( 2006). Exploring methods to extend the reach of diabetes specialist expertise into primary care clinics. The Diabetes Educator , 32, 525-530.
52.
Kirk, J.K., Ralph, B., Bell, R.A., Passmore, L.V., & Bonds, D.E. ( 2006). Disparities in HbA1c levels between African-American and non-Hispanic white adults with diabetes. Diabetes Care , 29, 2130-2136.
53.
Ko, Y., Abarca, J., Malone, D.C., Dare, D.C., Geraets, D., Houranieh, A., . . . Wilhardt, M. ( 2007). Practitioners’ views on computerized drug-drug interaction alerts in the VA system. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, 14, 56-64.
54.
Koro, C.E., Bowlin, S.J., Bourgeois, N., & Fedder, D.O. ( 2004). Glycemic control from 1988 to 2000 among U.S. adults diagnosed with type 2 diabetes: A preliminary report. Diabetes Care, 27, 17-20.
55.
Landon, B.E., Hicks, L.S., O’Malley, A.J., Lieu, T.A., Keegan, T., McNeil, B.J., & Guadagnoli, E. (2007). Improving the management of chronic disease at community health centers. New England Journal of Medicine, 356, 921-934.
56.
Levetan, C.S., Dawn, K.R., Robbins, D.C., & Ratner, R.E. ( 2002). Impact of computer-generated personalized goals on HbA(1c) . Diabetes Care, 25, 2-8.
57.
Liebman, J., Heffernan, D., & Sarvela, P. ( 2007). Establishing diabetes self-management in a community health center serving low-income Latinos. The Diabetes Educator , 33(Suppl. 6), 132S-138S.
58.
Lorig, K.R., Ritter, P.H., & Laurent, D.D. ( 2006). Internet-based chronic disease self-management: A randomized trial. Medical Care, 44, 964-971.
59.
Lujan, J., Ostwald, S.K., & Ortiz, M. ( 2007). Promotora diabetes intervention for Mexican Americans . The Diabetes Educator, 33, 660-670.
60.
Mahotiere, T., Ocepek-Welikson, K., Daley, M.B., & Byssainthe, J.P. (2006). A program to reduce the disparity in the rate of biennial lipid profiles between African-American and white Medicare beneficiaries with diabetes mellitus in New York City. Journal of Community Health, 31, 263-288.
61.
Mauldon, M., Melkus, G.D., & Cagganello, M. (2006). Tomando Control: A culturally appropriate diabetes education program for Spanish-speaking individuals with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Evaluation of a pilot project. The Diabetes Educator, 32, 751-760.
62.
McDonald, C.J., Overhage, J.M., Barnes, M., Schadow, G., Blevins, L., Dexter, P.R., & Mamlin, B. ( 2005). The Indiana network for patient care: A working local health information infrastructure. An example of a working infrastructure collaboration that links data from five health systems and hundreds of millions of entries. Health Affairs (Millwood), 24, 1214-1220.
63.
Miller, C.D., Ziemer, D.C., Kolm, P., El-Kebbi, I.M., Cook, C.B., Gallina, D.L., . . . Phillips, L.S. (2006). Use of a glucose algorithm to direct diabetes therapy improves A1C outcomes and defines an approach to assess provider behavior. The Diabetes Educator, 32, 533-545.
64.
Miller, R.H., & Sim, I. ( 2004). Physicians’ use of electronic medical records: Barriers and solutions. Health Affairs ( Millwood), 23, 116-126.
65.
Moreno, L., Dale, S.B., Chen, A.Y., & Magee, C.A. ( 2009). Costs to Medicare of the Informatics for Diabetes Education and Telemedicine (IDEATel) home telemedicine demonstration: Findings from an independent evaluation. Diabetes Care, 32, 1202-1204.
66.
Morrissey, N.J., Giacovelli, J., Egorova, N., Gelijns, A., Moskowitz, A., McKinsey, J., . . . Greco, G. ( 2007). Disparities in the treatment and outcomes of vascular disease in Hispanic patients. Journal of Vascular Surgery , 46, 971-978.
67.
Mostashari, F., Tripathi, M., & Kendall, M. ( 2009). A tale of two large community electronic health record extension projects. Health Affairs (Millwood ), 28, 345-356.
68.
Narayan, K.M., Boyle, J.P., Geiss, L.S., Saaddine, J.B., & Thompson, T.J. (2006). Impact of recent increase in incidence on future diabetes burden: U.S., 2005-2050. Diabetes Care, 29, 2114-2116.
69.
National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. (2008). National diabetes statistics, 2007 fact sheet. Bethesda, MD: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institutes of Health.
70.
Palmas, W., Teresi, J., Morin, P., Wolff, L.T., Field, L., Eimicke, J.P., . . . Shea S. ( 2006). Recruitment and enrollment of rural and urban medically underserved elderly into a randomized trial of telemedicine case management for diabetes care. Telemedicine Journal and e-Health, 12, 601-607.
71.
Peek, M.E., Cargill, A., & Huang, E.S. ( 2007). Diabetes health disparities: A systematic review of health care interventions. Medical Care Research and Review, 64(5 Suppl.), 101-156.
72.
Phillips, L.S., Ziemer, D.C., Doyle, J.P., Barnes, C.S., Kolm, P., Branch, W.T., . . . Watkins, C. ( 2005). An endocrinologist-supported intervention aimed at providers improves diabetes management in a primary care site: Improving Primary Care of African Americans with Diabetes (IPCAAD) 7. Diabetes Care , 28, 2352-2360.
73.
Regenbogen, S.E., Gawande, A.A., Lipsitz, S.R., Greenberg, C.C., & Jha, A. K. (2009). Do differences in hospital and surgeon quality explain racial disparities in lower-extremity vascular amputations? Annals of Surgery, 250, 424-431
74.
Reichsman, A., Warner, J.J., & Cella, P. ( 2009). Opportunities for improved diabetes care among patients of safety net practices: A safety net providers’ strategic alliance study. Journal of the National Medical Association, 101, 4-11.
75.
Rosal, M.E., Benjamin, E., & Pekow, P. ( 2008). Opportunities and challenges for diabetes prevention at two community health centers. Diabetes Care, 31, 247-254.
76.
Rosamond, W., Flegal, K., Friday, G., Furie, K., Go, A., Greenlund, K., . . . Hong, Y. ( 2007). Heart disease and stroke statistics-2007 update: A report from the American Heart Association Statistics Committee and Stroke Statistics Subcommittee. Circulation, 115, e69-e171.
77.
Saydah, S., Cowie, C., Eberhardt, M.S., De Rekeneire, N., & Narayan, K.M. ( 2007). Race and ethnic differences in glycemic control among adults with diagnosed diabetes in the United States. Ethnicity & Diabetes, 17, 529-535.
78.
Schade, C.P., & Hannah, K.L. ( 2007). Quality of ambulatory care for diabetes and lower-extremity amputation. American Journal of Medical Quality, 22, 410-417.
79.
Selvin, E., Wattanakit, K., Steffes, M.W., Coresh, J., & Sharrett, A.R. (2006). HbA1c and peripheral arterial disease in diabetes: The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities study. Diabetes Care, 29, 877-882.
80.
Shea, S., Weinstock, R.S., Starren, J., Teresi, J., Palmas, W., Field, L., . . . Lantigua, R.A. (2006). A randomized trial comparing telemedicine case management with usual care in older, ethnically diverse, medically underserved patients with diabetes mellitus. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, 13, 40-51.
81.
Shea, S., Weinstock, R.S., Teresi, J.A., Palmas, W., Starren, J., Cimino, J.J., . . . Eimicke, J.P. (2009). A randomized trial comparing telemedicine case management with usual care in older, ethnically diverse, medically underserved patients with diabetes mellitus: 5 year results of the IDEATel study. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, 16, 446-456.
82.
Shields, A.E., Shin, P., Leu, M.G., Levy, D.E., Betancourt, R.M., Hawkins, D., & Proser, M. ( 2007). Adoption of health information technology in community health centers: Results of a national survey. Health Affairs (Millwood), 26, 1373-1383.
83.
Simon, J.S., Rundall, T.G., & Shortell, S.M. (2007). Adoption of order entry with decision support for chronic care by physician organizations. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, 14, 432-439.
84.
Sixta, C.S., & Ostwald, S. ( 2008). Texas-Mexico border intervention by promotores for patients with type 2 diabetes. The Diabetes Educator, 34, 299-309.
85.
Steinhardt, M.A., Mamerow, M.M., Brown, S.A., & Jolly, C.A. ( 2009). A resilience intervention in African American adults with type 2 diabetes: A pilot study of efficacy. The Diabetes Educator, 35, 274-284.
86.
Thom, D.H., Tirado, M.D., Woon, T.L., & McBride, M.R. ( 2006). Development and evaluation of a cultural competency training curriculum. BMC Medical Education, 6, 38.
87.
Thompson, J.R., Horton, C., & Flores, C. ( 2007). Advancing diabetes self-management in the Mexican American population: A community health worker model in a primary care setting. The Diabetes Educator, 33(Suppl. 6), 159S-165S.
88.
Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group. (1998). British Medical Journal, 317, 703-713.
89.
Ueckert, F., Goerz, M., Ataian, M., Tessmann, S., & Prokosch, H.U. (2003). Empowerment of patients and communication with health care professionals through an electronic health record. International Journal of Medical Informatics, 70, 99-108.
90.
Ulmer, C., McFadden, B., & Nerenz, D. R. (Eds.). (2009). Race, ethnicity, and language data: Standardization for health care quality improvement. Subcommittee on Standardized Collection of Race/Ethnicity Data for Healthcare Quality Improvement, Board on Health Care Services, Institute of Medicine. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
91.
Utz, S.W., Williams, I.C., Jones, R., Hinton, I., Alexander, G., Yan, G., . . . Oliver, M.N. ( 2008). Culturally tailored intervention for rural African Americans with type 2 diabetes. The Diabetes Educator, 34, 854-865.
92.
Wagner, H., Pizzimenti, J.J., Daniel, K., Pandya, N., & Hardigan, P.C. (2008). Eye on diabetes: A multidisciplinary patient education intervention. The Diabetes Educator, 34, 84-89.
93.
Wakefield, B.J., Ward, M.M., Holman, J.E., Ray, A., Scherubel, M., Burns, T.L., . . . Rosenthal, G.E. (2008). Evaluation of home telehealth following hospitalization for heart failure: A randomized trial. Telemedicine Journal and E-Health, 14, 753-761.
94.
Weitzman, E.R., Kaci, L., & Mandl, K.D. ( 2009). Acceptability of a personally controlled health record in a community-based setting: Implications for policy and design. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 11(2), e14.
95.
Welch, W.P., Bazarko, D., Ritten, K., Burgess, Y., Harmon, R., & Sandy, L.G. ( 2007). Electronic health records in four community physician practices: Impact on quality and cost of care. Journal of the American Medical Informatics Association, 14, 320-328.
96.
Wong, M.D., Martin, F., Shapiro, W., Boscardin, J., & Ettner, S.L. ( 2002). Contribution of major diseases to disparities in mortality . New England Journal of Medicine, 347, 1585-1592.
97.
Zandieh, S.O., Yoon-Flannery, K., Kuperman, G.J., Langsam, D.J., Hyman, D., & Kaushal, R. ( 2008). Challenges to EHR implementation in electronic- versus paper-based office practices. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 23, 755-761.
98.
Zaza, S., Wright-De Agüero, L.K., Briss, P.A., Truman, P.I., Hopkins, D.P., Hennessy, M.H., . . . Pappaioanou, M. (2000). Data collection instrument and procedure for systematic reviews in the Guide to Community Preventive Services Task Force on Community Preventive Services. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 18(1 Suppl.), 44-74.
99.
Ziemer, D.C., Doyle, J.P., Barnes, C.S., Branch, W.T., Jr., Cook, C.B., El-Kebbi, I.M., . . . Phillips, L.S. (2006). An intervention to overcome clinical inertia and improve diabetes mellitus control in a primary care setting: Improving Primary Care of African Americans with Diabetes (IPCAAD) 8. Archives of Internal Medicine, 166, 507-513.
100.
Zrebiec, J.F. ( 2005). Internet communities: Do they improve coping with diabetes ? The Diabetes Educator, 31, 825-836.
