Burnout Among Forensic Interviewers,How They Cope,and What Agencies Can Do to Help

Abstract

The current study used quantitative and qualitative responses from 250 forensic interviewers (FIs) in the United States to examine predictors of burnout and personal coping mechanisms. Findings indicated that burnout was primarily driven by work-related factors including frequently feeling overwhelmed with job-related duties, inadequate organizational support, and direct exposure to graphic materials involving children. Moreover, having a higher degree of compassion satisfaction and being non-White significantly mitigated symptoms of burnout. Qualitative findings indicated that FIs regularly experienced varied and personalized feelings of burnout and utilized a variety of coping methods to combat their stressors. FIs in this study also made individual suggestions regarding how their respective agencies can assist in the coping process. Policy implications are discussed.

Keywords

forensic interviewers burnout self-care coping organizational support

Introduction

In cases of suspected child abuse/neglect, forensic interviewers (FIs) are commonly utilized to interview children who have potentially been victimized. Given that children are susceptible to misinformation and suggestibility (Ceci & Bruck, 1995), FIs are specially trained to employ developmentally sensitive and noncoercive investigative techniques to verify or negate allegations of maltreatment among child victims and witnesses. This not only requires sensitivity but also the ability to elicit information in a way that conforms to appropriate legal standards (J. Anderson et al., 2010). FIs experience unique stressors due to the nature of their work—initial interviews with child victims/witnesses, debriefing sessions with colleagues, and court testimony, all regularly, both directly and indirectly, expose FIs to traumatic accounts of crimes against children. FIs, as a subgroup of child maltreatment investigators (CMIs), have a specific niche in the child welfare field. FIs generally interview child victim/witnesses during the first step of child protective services (CPS) or law enforcement investigations, and they also act as investigators to verify the legitimacy of child maltreatment allegations. As a result, FIs have direct interactions with child victims and are witness to victims’ trauma responses during these interviews and investigations. This role may result in FIs being differentially impacted by this exposure compared to other child welfare workers. Because of the frequent exposure to graphic details of crimes against children, as well as other stressors accompanying this type of work (i.e., heavy caseloads, short deadlines, and high turnover rates; D.G. Anderson, 2000; Graef & Hill, 2000), FIs are particularly susceptible to a myriad of social and emotional issues stemming from the nature of their work, with little research on how these are experienced or related to potential burnout.

Burnout refers to “…feelings of hopelessness and difficulties in dealing with work or…doing [one’s] job effectively” (Stamm, 2010, p. 13). Defined as “a prolonged response to chronic emotional and interpersonal stressors on the job,” burnout is a gradual process that can have substantial effects on individual health, motivation, and job performance (McCarty & Skogan, 2013, p. 66). Burnout has been further conceptualized as encompassing three features: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and reduced personal accomplishment (Maslach & Jackson, 1981). Of these, the core element to burnout is emotional exhaustion that occurs due to the lack of equity and reciprocity in relationships between helping professionals and those they serve, along with the overall demanding nature of their line of work (McCarty & Skogan, 2013). Depersonalization refers to feelings of detachment, lowered interest in work, and/or cynicism toward one’s work or others (Maslach & Jackson, 1981). Reduced personal accomplishment occurs when individuals feel like their work-related efforts are not making a difference or are otherwise ineffective (Maslach & Jackson, 1981).

Studies examining rates of burnout among those in helping professions have found prevalence estimates ranging from 39% to 75% among social workers (Siebert, 2006), 43% to 54% among Internet Crimes Against Children (ICAC) personnel (Perez, Jones, Englert, & Sachau, 2010), and between 40% and 62% among CMIs (D. G. Anderson, 2000; Conrad & Kellar-Guenther, 2006). Decades of scholarship have focused on burnout among helping professions and continually note the deleterious individual and occupational effects of burnout (Freudenberger, 1977; Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001).

Burnout contributes to numerous negative personal consequences, including physical and mental illnesses (Maslach et al., 2001; Salston & Figley, 2003), substance abuse (Ahola et al., 2006), work–family conflicts (Jackson & Maslach, 1982), and maladaptive coping mechanisms (Padyab, Backteman-Erlanson, & Brulin, 2013), as well as organizational consequences such as absenteeism (Travis, Lizano, & Mor Barak, 2015), reduced job performance (Maslach et al., 2001; Smoktunowicz et al., 2015), and turnover (U.S. General Accounting Office, 2003). Although it is clear that burnout is common among helping professionals, there is limited research available that examines burnout specifically among those who work with traumatized children (Eastwood & Ecklund, 2008), with even fewer studies employing a qualitative approach to assess practitioner perspectives of coping mechanisms for burnout and what employers can do to help. The current study expands the burnout literature by using quantitative and qualitative data from FIs to uncover the relationship between personal stressors, work-related factors, and burnout, as well as providing a thorough understanding of coping strategies among FIs.

Review of Literature

FIs are responsible for obtaining statements from child victims and witnesses regarding allegations of abuse, primarily sexual abuse (Chiarelli-Helminiak, 2014). As such, the prevalence of burnout among these individuals is not unexpected (D. G. Anderson, 2000; Conrad & Kellar-Guenther, 2006). Several personal and job-related/organizational correlates of burnout have been identified among the helping professions. Personal factors include sex, in that female employees have indicated higher levels of burnout as compared to male employees (Pines, Aronson, & Kafry, 1981), and age or time on the job, with younger and less experienced employees having increased levels of burnout (Schaufeli & Buunk, 1996). Job-related and organizational factors include perceived support from supervisors and coworkers (Brady, 2017; Schaufeli & Buunk, 1996), organizational culture, high workloads (D. G. Anderson, 2000), turnover intentions (Alarcon, 2011), low job satisfaction (Alarcon, 2011), and inadequate resources and staff (Alarcon, 2011; M. B. Powell, Guadagno, & Cassematis, 2013). Research has consistently found that organizational stressors have more of an impact on burnout compared to other factors including exposure to traumatic events (Alarcon, 2011; Gershon, Xianbin, Barocas, Canton, & Vlahov, 2009; Salston & Figley, 2003; Swider & Zimmerman, 2010). This finding has also been supported among other professions that work with young traumatized populations such as pediatric nurses (Davies, 2013; Sodeke-Gregson, Holttum, & Billings, 2013; Meadors, Lamson, Swanson, White, & Sira, 2009–2010).

A nursing subset, Sexual Assault Nurse Examiners (SANEs), is arguably more similar to FIs, in that sexual assault victims are their most common clients. An examination of SANEs from 110 programs nationwide reported that burnout was predicted by compassion satisfaction, decreased peer support, decreased education, and age, with younger respondents reporting higher levels of burnout (Townsend & Campbell, 2009). Furthermore, when an agency had high levels of prosecution orientation, defined as whether the agency’s overall priorities were to aid in criminal justice processing of a case, burnout was also higher. The authors suggest that this stems from an agency putting pressure on workers to do what is best for the criminal justice case, even if that is not what is best for the client being served. Despite an underlying goal of advocating for child victims, FIs seemingly experience these same conflicting ideologies, as will be discussed in later sections.

There is a paucity of literature available on burnout specific to FIs. Perron and Hiltz (2006) examined burnout among a small sample of FIs and found that greater organizational support mitigated symptoms of burnout, which is consistent with findings from studies focusing on CMIs generally and other helping professionals more broadly (Brady, 2017; Schaufeli & Buunk, 1996). Further, while job tenure was significantly associated with higher levels of burnout, the amount of time spent conducting forensic interviews did not influence burnout (Perron & Hiltz, 2006); however, the authors did not include a measure of caseload or the amount of time spent on other aspects of a child welfare case that do not include interviewing. The authors suggest that the limited amount of time an FI spends with a child, compared to caseworkers or other members of a multidisciplinary team (MDT), decreases the likelihood of lasting emotional relationships and connections that may exacerbate symptoms of burnout over time. However, as stated in early research of burnout, “symptoms of burnout may be the final common pathway of continual exposure to traumatic material that cannot be assimilated or worked through” (McCann & Pearlman, 1990, p. 134).

Chiarelli-Helminiak (2014) surveyed 148 FIs to examine whether several organizational factors were associated with burnout and job satisfaction. She found that a significant number of FIs experienced burnout with specific organizational factors having noted impacts (e.g., full-time employment, multiple job capacities, and MDT relationships), along with a lack of organizational support and lower job satisfaction. Through qualitative findings, FIs indicated that feelings of stress were related to a lack of supervisory support and instances when the “system” fails abused children. On the other hand, interviewees reported that the positive aspects of their work, such as helping children and holding offenders accountable, drove their sense of satisfaction. Most FIs believed in the importance of the work they were doing and the positive impact their work can have on the lives of abused children.

To date, few studies have examined the personal and work-related factors associated with burnout among FIs, with less known about coping mechanisms used. The current study expands the literature by using a large sample of FIs to better understand how agencies can improve the well-being of their employees and mitigate symptoms of burnout.

Data and Methods

Data for the current study were originally collected in spring 2012 as part of a larger study examining the professional quality of life among ICAC task force members and FIs. Data were obtained via an online survey that was administered through two private, yet separate nationwide listservs—one specifically for ICAC task force members and the other for child advocacy center (CAC)-based FIs. An ICAC task force commander and an executive director of a CAC in a Western state served as contact liaisons and administered the survey through the listservs. Both the commander and executive director volunteered to assist with this project and had no access to the collected data.

Respondents were presented with an overview of the purpose of the project, as well as a link to the online survey. Upon completion of the survey, participants were asked to forward the survey link to either an ICAC task force member or an FI. To increase the number of responses, three reminder e-mails containing the link to the survey were administered over a period of 6 weeks (Dillman, Smyth, & Christian, 2009). It is important to note that the online nature of the survey, as well as the snowball sampling technique, limited our ability to calculate response rates, the number of professionals who had access to the surveys, and the number of respondents who forwarded the link to the survey.¹ Nevertheless, a total of 846 respondents agreed to participate. Thirty-six responses were omitted due to incompletion and/or lack of variation in the data, such as not completing the survey as a whole or leaving key sections incomplete. Additionally, 560 respondents indicated that they were affiliated with an ICAC task force only, leaving a final sample of 250 FIs.

Dependent Variable

Burnout is the sole dependent variable and was measured using the fifth and most recent version of the Professional Quality of Life Scale (ProQOL-V; Stamm, 2010). The ProQOL-V is a 30-item instrument measuring the positive (i.e., compassion satisfaction) and negative aspects of human service work (i.e., compassion fatigue). According to Stamm (2010), compassion fatigue is comprised of two underlying constructs known as secondary traumatic stress (STS)² and burnout. Results of a principal axis factor analysis with oblique rotation of the compassion fatigue items confirmed the two-factor solution for the compassion fatigue construct.³ Of the 14 items loading above 0.4 on the compassion fatigue construct, 4 items clustered together to represent the burnout construct (eigenvalue = 1.44, loadings range = 0.54–0.93).⁴

Burnout is associated with feelings of exhaustion and hopelessness (Stamm, 2010) and was comprised of 4 items: “I feel overwhelmed because my caseload seems endless,” “I feel worn out because of my work as a child maltreatment investigator,” “I feel bogged down by the system,” and “I feel trapped by my job as a child maltreatment investigator.” Items were measured using a 5-point Likert-type scale indicating how frequently (1 = never, 5 = very often) they experienced each of the 4 items within the past 30 days (α = .85). Employing scoring procedures outlined in Stamm (2010), items were summed and transformed into a t-score with a standardized mean of 50 and a standard deviation (SD) of 10.

Independent Variables

To isolate the independent effects of FIs’ personal and work-related characteristics on burnout, a total of eight individual-level and eight organizational factors were included in the analyses.

Personal characteristics

Respondents were asked to report demographic characteristics including their sex (0 = male, 1 = female), race (0 = non-White, 1 = White), age (1 = 21–29, 2 = 30–39, 3 = 40–49, 4 = 50 or older), highest level of education obtained (0 = bachelor’s degree or less, 1 = graduate degree or higher), whether they were married (0 = no, 1 = yes), and whether they had children (0 = no, 1 = yes).⁵ Home support was a single item captured on a 6-point Likert-type scale measuring the degree to which they felt supported outside of work by their family and friends (M = 4.1, SD = 1.0). Finally, frequency of self-care engagement was a single item measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale capturing the extent to which respondents used self-care practices to regulate their physical and mental health (1 = never, 6 = very frequently, M = 4.5, SD = 1.1).

Work-related characteristics

Supervisor status was a dichotomous measure inquiring about whether respondents were currently a supervisor of other FIs (0 = no, 1 = yes). Respondents were asked to report the total amount of time they have been investigating crimes against children (tenure: 1 = 0–5 years, 2 = 6–10 years, 3 = 11 or more years) as well as the total number of hours they dedicate each week to conducting forensic interviews (weekly hours: 0 = part time [30 hr or less per week] and 1 = full time [31 hr or more per week]). We also inquired about the frequency in which FIs have felt overwhelmed with their job-related duties (e.g., caseloads, paperwork) in the past 30 days (1 = never, 6 = very frequently, M = 3.9, SD = 1.2). Organizational support was a single item measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale assessing the degree to which respondents felt supported within their organization (1 = unsupported, 6 = very supported, M = 3.4, SD = 1.3).

According to Stamm (2010), compassion satisfaction is a positive outcome associated with human service work that denotes the “pleasure [respondents] derive from being able to perform the work well” (p. 12). Compassion satisfaction was captured through 10 items that were measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale (α = .89). Respondents were asked to indicate how often they experienced each of the 10 items in the past 30 days (e.g., “I have happy thoughts and feelings about those I help and how I could help them” or “I believe I can make a difference through my work”). Items were summed and standardized using t-scores with a mean of 50 and an SD of 10.

Considering that FIs work for a variety of different agencies (Chiarelli-Helminiak, 2014), it was important to assess whether, how, and to what degree the exposure to child maltreatment impacted burnout. While FIs are all indirectly exposed to CAC, respondents were asked to indicate the degree to which they were directly (e.g., child pornography, bruises, crime scene videos/images) and indirectly (e.g., listening, interviewing, reading about child maltreatment) exposed to child maltreatment. Frequency of direct exposure was captured as a single item measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = never, 5 = very often, M = 2.0, SD = 1.2). While the frequency of indirect exposure was originally captured on a 5-point Likert type scale, it was dichotomized due to the lack of variation in the data (0 = sometimes, 1 = often/very often).

Analytic Strategy

Quantitative Data

Data analyses were conducted through multiple steps. First, a small percentage of cases were omitted due to incompletion and/or lack of variation in individual responses (14.1%). Little’s Missing Completely at Random test (MCAR) was not significant, χ²(119, N = 250) = 137.04, p = .124, indicating that multiple imputation was not necessary and that listwise deletion would not impact the validity of research findings (Garson, 2015). Second, univariate and bivariate analyses were conducted to assess the overall distribution of the data as well as identifying any significant relationships between the independent and dependent variables. Given the continuous nature of the dependent variable, an ordinary least squares (OLS) regression model was estimated to identify the unique personal and work-related factors associated with burnout. Independent variables were only included in the multivariate model if they were significantly associated with burnout at the bivariate level.⁶

Qualitative Data

To provide a more detailed understanding of burnout, stressors, and coping among FIs, three open-ended questions were asked, based on a prior study of STS among law enforcement officers: (1) “What is the hardest thing about your work?” (2) “What helps you the most in coping with your work?” and (3) “What is the most beneficial thing the agency you work for could do to help you cope with the negative aspects of your job?” (Perez et al., 2010).

Qualitative content analysis took place during a multistage process (Berg & Lune, 2012; Singleton & Straits, 2017) with three coders. First, coders individually interpreted the list of responses, looking for recurring themes. This was followed by a group discussion to compare themes, with a final set of five to six themes chosen for final coding, based on the question. Coders then individually examined responses for a second time, identifying one or more themes present in each response.⁷ Finally, a second group session took place where the coding of each response was compared. In situations where there was not 100% agreement, the response and themes were discussed until a final classification was reached.⁸

Results

Quantitative Results: Predictors of Burnout

Sample demographics

Descriptive statistics are presented in Table 1. Overall, respondents were predominantly White (86.7%), female (83.5%), and between the ages of 30 and 39 (37.6%). Nearly half of all respondents held a graduate degree (48.8%), 66% were married, and 71.5% had children of their own. Most of the respondents worked full time as an FI (65.2%), were within the first 10 years of investigating crimes against children (70%), and a third of respondents held a supervisor status (29.7%).

Table 1.

Descriptive Statistics.

Variables and Attributes	M (SD) or % (Frequency)	Minimum/Maximum	Burnout Association
Variables and Attributes	M (SD) or % (Frequency)	Minimum/Maximum	Pearson’s r	T
Dependent variable
Burnout (α = .85)	50.0 (10)	30.3–77
Independent variables
Sex		0–1		1.14
Males	16.5 (41)
Females	83.5 (207)
Race		0–1		−2.45*
Non-White	13.3 (33)
White	86.7 (216)
Age		1–4
21–29	14.8 (37)			0.60
30–39	37.6 (94)			0.04
40–49	28.8 (72)			−1.26
50 or older	18.8 (47)			0.92
Education		0–1		0.18
Bachelor’s degree and lower	51.2 (128)
Graduate degree	48.8 (122)
Marital status		0–1		0.09
Not married	34.4 (86)
Married	65.6 (164)
Parental status		0–1		−0.44
No children	28.5 (71)
Has child(ren)	71.5 (178)
Home support	4.1 (1.0)	1–5	−.26**
Frequency of self-care engagement	4.5 (1.1)	1–6	−.18**
Frequently overwhelmed at work	3.9 (1.2)	1–6	.68**
Organizational support	3.4 (1.3)	1–5	−.51**
Compassion satisfaction (α = .89)	50.0 (10)	21.8–68.5	−.43**
Frequency of direct exposure to CAC	2.0 (1.2)	1–5	.16*
Frequent indirect exposure to CAC		0–1		−1.34
Sometimes	13.7 (34)
Often/very often	86.3 (214)
Tenure investigating CAC		1–3
0–5 years	39.6 (99)			−1.18
6–10 years	30.0 (75)			0.16
11 or more years	30.4 (76)			1.20
Weekly hours investigating CAC		0–1		−1.97*
Part time (0–30 hr/week)	34.8 (87)
Full time (31 hr or more/week)	65.2 (163)
Supervisor status		0–1		1.00
No	70.3 (173)
Yes	29.7 (73)

Note. N = 250. Degrees of freedom for all t tests = 248. CAC = crimes against children; SD = standard deviation.

*p < .05. **p < .01.

Burnout

Table 2 presents the results of the OLS model estimating the personal and work-related characteristics associated with burnout. The model was significant, F(11, 230) = 35.73, p = .000, and explained 62.6% of the variation in the dependent variable, as evidenced by the adjusted R ² value. Findings indicated that being White (b = 5.10, p < .001), frequently feeling overwhelmed with work (b = 4.49, p < .001), low compassion satisfaction (b = −0.13, p < .01), inadequate organizational support (b = −2.04, p < .001), and frequent direct exposure to graphic materials involving children (b = 0.89, p < .05) were all significantly associated with a greater frequency of experiencing symptoms of burnout. Factors such as sex, education, external job support, frequency of self-care engagement, full-time status, and tenure were all nonsignificant.

Table 2.

OLS Regression Results: Predictors of Burnout Among Forensic Interviewers.

Variable	b	SE	β
Female (0 = male)	0.31	1.20	.01
White (0 = non-White)	5.10	1.36	.16***
Education (1 = graduate degree)	−0.08	0.82	.00
Home support (continuous)	−0.42	0.48	−.04
Frequency of self-care engagement (continuous)	−0.54	0.44	−.05
Frequently feeling overwhelmed with work (continuous)	4.49	0.36	.55***
Organizational support (continuous)	−2.04	0.39	−.26***
Compassion satisfaction (continuous)	−0.13	0.05	−.13**
Direct exposure to traumatic content (continuous)	0.89	0.37	.10*
Full-time employee (0 = part time <30 hr per week)	0.45	0.85	.02
Within first 5 years investigating CAC (0 = no)	1.25	0.84	.06
F	35.73***
Adjusted R ²	.626
N	230

Note. N = 250. CAC = crimes against children; OLS = ordinary least squares; SE = standard error.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Qualitative Results

Qualitative results attempt to delve deeper into potential causes of burnout, coping strategies, and ways that agencies can mitigate symptoms of burnout among FIs. In Table 3, we present respective thematic coding options and general descriptive statistics for each question.

Table 3.

Qualitative Themes for Questions 1–3.

Theme	Definition	n	%
Question 1: “What is the hardest thing about your work?” (N = 237)
Workload	Too many cases, not enough resources	48	20.25
Lack of support	The agency they are working for is unsupportive or does not provide appropriate resources	37	15.61
System issues	Bureaucratic and administrative concerns, issues with other agencies involved in the process or current laws/statutes	58	24.47
Helplessness	Feeling personally unable to protect victims or keep them from further victimization	35	14.47
Working with victims	Emotional toll of working with child victims, inability to create a functioning work–life balance (such as feeling unsupported by family/friends or too mentally drained)	95	40.08
Question 2: “What helps you the most in coping with your work?” (N = 234)
Humor	Any use of humor	40	17.09
Religion	Religion or spirituality (an appeal to a higher power or force)	22	9.40
Support: coworkers	Using coworkers at their agency or other professionals in similar positions to vent and share experiences	94	40.17
Support: family/friends	Using family/friends outside of the workplace to vent and talk to	65	27.78
Taking a break	Any activity outside of work that doesn’t fit into the above categories. These include gym, travel, shopping, and so on	88	37.61
Question 3: “What is the most beneficial thing the agency you work for could do to help you cope with the negative aspects of your job?” (N = 231)
↑ Work benefits	Things that would be considered during a contract negotiation, such as pay and vacation days	52	22.51
Emotional support	Increased understanding and appreciation by their agency, including promotion of bonding and team building among coworkers	85	36.80
Self-care	Resources for individual care, either emotional or physical	48	20.78
Instrumental support	Physical resources that help the respondent improve their job skills or how they conduct their work.	12	5.19
↑ System resources	Changes to the child welfare system generally, such as harsher laws, more employees, or decreased caseload.	45	19.48
Agency is supportive	The agency is providing any of the above and the respondent feels generally supported.	31	13.42

Note. N = number of responses; n = number of times themes appeared; ↑ = Increased.

Hardest thing about work

Five general response themes were identified for Question 1. Most commonly, respondents reported that working with victims of abuse was the most difficult aspect of their job (n = 95; 40.08%). This took many forms including the difficulty in getting a child to disclose when there is evidence of abuse, feeling unable to protect the child from future victimization events, or feeling like they, the FI, are not doing enough. This struggle is seen in the responses of these FIs:

[The hardest thing is] knowing about kids that have no family support. Not being able to always put the bad guys in jail.

[The hardest thing is] that it often feels like a bottomless pit that is not getting any better. It is mind boggling how adults can do the things they do! I often take home certain cases, in my mind and heart, and that can be hard to kick.

The first quote also makes mention of another common issue for FIs, larger system issues, which were reported by approximately one quarter of respondents (n = 58; 24.47%). This includes being restricted by “red tape,” navigating “politics,” or feelings of working for a system that does not truly take the welfare of children into account. Multiple respondents noted issues with how cases are processed through court, including the length of time that is required for a case to reach completion through a trial and the required participation of children. Unfortunately, children are legally mandated to face their perpetrator due to the confrontation clause of the sixth amendment and receive limited legal protections when testifying (Fansher & del Carmen, 2016). Respondents noted these issues in their responses.

Workload, including number of cases and hours worked, was also frequently mentioned (n = 48; 20.25%) by respondents, along with a lack of support from the agency they were working for (n = 37; 15.61%). It was not uncommon for these themes to appear together, as with these respondents:

[The hardest thing about my work is the] tremendous case load. Finding the time to appropriate the time needed for each case. Sometimes, supervisors’ negative attitudes can effect [sic] my attitude regarding work.

[The hardest thing about my work is] finding the energy to keep giving and going forward. Not having support from the organization in which I work in terms of adequate training on compassion fatigue and self-care, too many cases, etc.

Coping methods

The second open-ended question asked respondents to explain the methods they use to cope with potential burnout and stressors of being an FI. This question provided arguably the most personal and individualistic responses. For this reason, the themes identified are intentionally broad with some exceptions.

General support was important for respondents, either through their coworkers (n = 94; 40.17%) or their outside friends and family (n = 65; 27.78%). With regard to coworkers, this was often coupled with the use of humor as a coping mechanism (n = 40; 17.09% overall responses), as seen with these respondents:

Talking about it [helps the most with coping]. Law enforcement is notorious for having a sick and disturbing sense of humor but people don’t understand it’s a coping mechanism.

Co-workers [help the most with coping], talking to them about a case and laughing about things. Almost a twisted humor at times that people in the outside world would not understand.

Outside hobbies and activities unrelated to the field of child abuse and neglect were also noted as helpful coping methods (n = 88; 37.61%). This encompassed a range of activities such as exercising, the most common, being outdoors, taking short trips, reading, and volunteering. Religion and spirituality were also essential for some respondents (n = 22; 9.4%) including attending church, personal prayer, and relying on “faith.” For these, it provided a sense of purpose for their lives and work.

Positive thinking unrelated to religion also helped respondents cope with their work stressors (n = 44; 18.80%). Respondents noted the satisfaction of being able to help a victim out of an abusive situation or to be the person that the victim gets to tell their story to, as noted by these respondents:

[What helps me most with coping is] understanding that the interview is usually the first time a child has talked about abuse to a person that is neutral; this is the first step in the healing process.

[What helps me most with coping is] knowing what little I could do for that child may have changed the course of that child’s life.

There was often not a single strategy that respondents used to cope with their work. The vast majority (73.51%) of responses were coded in three or more categories, such as these:

[What helps me most in coping is] exercising routinely, finding joy in the simple things, having hobbies, having a strong support system at work and in my personal life, sarcasm, and a sense of humor.

I believe God has enabled me to leave work at work…. Humor in and out of the workplace are also a big help. Finally, support systems in and out of my workplace make it very easy to cope with what I hear.

What can the agency do?

After reporting what their biggest issues were and how they coped, respondents were asked to suggest what their agency could do to improve coping in the workplace. The results fell into five themes for agency suggestions plus one category for respondents reporting that their agency was already supportive.

Following along with the previous questions, respondents most commonly wrote about the need for emotional support from their agency (n = 85; 36.80%) with management and supervisory roles cited as where the most work is needed, as seen in these responses:

The most beneficial thing the agency could do would be to provide upper management who understands how second hand trauma can be experienced and encourage self-care, debriefing, and taking time to decompress between interviews.

My agency tends to blame the worker in times of crisis. The management is not supportive and at times I feel that they are unethical. Their memories fade and they go into “butt cover mode” instead of supporting the workers.

Increased work benefits were also a recommendation of respondents (n = 52; 22.51%), encompassing any benefit provided by the agency that would most likely be considered during a contract negotiation. Recurring suggestions included general time off, such as vacation days, work retreats, more flexibility with scheduling, along with self-care needs, and a focus on “mental health days” after particularly trying cases or interviews. Relatedly, respondents suggested more opportunities for self-care (n = 48; 20.78%) with responses ranging from massages, perhaps the most popular, yoga and exercise opportunities at work, and counseling services, either individual or as a work group.

As well as personal benefits, respondents noted the desire for instrumental support from their agency, namely, increased training opportunities (n = 12; 5.19%). Some respondents felt that their current training options were not adequate and asked for “frequent, realistic, and in-depth training” as well as “…GOOD trainings—and not those damned webcasts at our computers.”

One in five respondents (n = 45; 19.48%) noted that broader system issues are where the problems lie, including attorneys, lack of resources for processing, or bureaucratic issues. Some of these have been alluded to above and were again highlighted with this question:

[The agency could] win the lottery…then, they could hire enough attorneys to handle the caseloads, and as a result the attorneys would have time to know which of their clients could benefit from the services I offer and could take the time to refer them.

On a positive note, 13.42% (n = 31) of respondents noted a currently supportive agency. This often included a combination of positive activities, such as this agency.

We have weekly staff meetings, engage in fun activities together in and out of work, and are frequently laughing with one another. I feel as though I am valuable and that people appreciate the work I do.

Feelings of worth and being valued were common responses for these individuals, along with an “understanding” supervisor who is properly trained in the effects of professional burnout. For some respondents, it was clear that a simple acknowledgment of their work was all they needed: “[The most beneficial thing my agency can do is] simply say ‘nice job’ periodically.”

Discussion

The current study explored burnout and coping mechanisms among a sample of 250 FIs, both using quantitative data and responses to open-ended questions. Quantitatively, burnout among FIs was most affected by FIs feeling overwhelmed with work. This is unsurprising, given that existing burnout literature consistently notes the importance of organizational factors, such as inadequate organizational support and heavy caseloads, on one’s experiences of burnout (D. G. Anderson, 2000; Brady, 2017; Schaufeli & Buunk, 1996). Feelings of organizational support were also significant predictors of burnout at home and, more importantly, within their respective organization (Davies, 2013; Sodeke-Gregson et al., 2013; Meadors et al., 2009–2010; Townsend & Campbell, 2009). This was also supported in the qualitative results with responses commonly referring to high caseload, long hours, and constant energy required of FIs. Compassion satisfaction was also significantly predictive of decreased feelings of burnout. Within the qualitative data, this was represented in Question 2, “What helps you the most in coping with your work?” as “positive thinking” and translated to a focus on the children FIs were helping as opposed to the things they have no control over, such as laws and bureaucracies. Taken together, these findings underscore the importance of supervisors and colleagues in helping FIs to focus on the larger effect of their efforts and personal successes that remind them of their positive impact.

Given what we know about the prevalence and risk factors of burnout, along with the type of work FIs do, it is important to glean insight into how they cope with stress. Unfortunately, there are few empirical studies that examine coping among helping professionals in a consistent manner, and as such, it remains unclear how best to move forward with assisting coping at a personal and organizational level (Perron & Hiltz, 2006). Regardless, we do know that positive coping mechanisms are vitally important. Professionals who are psychologically healthy are better able to provide support than those who suffer from burnout (Killian, 2008). For FIs in this study, positive coping included engaging in outside hobbies, “taking a break” from work regularly, and receiving support from family, friends, and coworkers.

Internal and external sources of support are integral for coping among those working with victimized children. Research indicates that collegial support is the most utilized form of support due to shared experiences, understanding of humor, debriefing sessions, caseload sharing, and general advice (Craun & Bourke, 2014; M. Powell, Cassematis, Benson, Smallbone, & Wortley, 2014; Tomyn, Powell, Cassematis, Smallbone, & Wortley, 2015; Wright, Powell, & Ridge, 2006). Outside of the workplace, having a strong support system with friends and/or family and engaging in other, positive coping strategies, such as exercise and spirituality (Hesse, 2002; Killian, 2008), are noted to reduce the potential for burnout (Brady, 2017) and general psychological distress (Davidson & Moss, 2008). Supervisors can encourage self-care techniques for employees through partnerships with various community businesses including gyms or recreation centers for discounted memberships. It is not uncommon for area businesses to provide such partnerships and membership incentives for a potential increase in clientele. For nonphysically inclined employees, this may include group discounts for more creative activities such as cooking or painting classes (Hesse, 2002). Agencies should provide training on self-care techniques (Killian, 2008) or partner with local agencies to provide discounted counseling services.

It is particularly important for agency leaders to look for ways to alleviate potential organizational risk factors of burnout, as these play a significant role in the process (Alarcon, 2011; Gershon et al., 2009; Salston & Figley, 2003; Swider & Zimmerman, 2010). Unfortunately, limiting exposure to trauma and decreasing caseloads is usually not possible for individuals in this field. In response, agency supervisors must be cognizant of workloads and avoid overworking their employees. This may include many possibilities such as supporting FIs when they request a “mental health” day to process a particularly difficult case (Chiarelli-Helminiak, 2014; M. B. Powell et al., 2013; M. Powell et al. 2014; Wright et al., 2006) or simply making sure they take a full lunch break and leave work at an appropriate time (Hesse, 2002). Generally speaking, supervisors must be aware of the signs of burnout and provide logistically and economically feasible opportunities for employees to combat these feelings. Other strategies employed by organizations are found to be effective in reducing the incidence of burnout among their employees, including case consultation and group supervision (Barth, Lloyd, Christ, Chapman, & Dickinson, 2008; Killian, 2008; Perron & Hiltz, 2006; VanDeusen & Way, 2006), as well as allowing FIs more control over their daily work and schedules.

Control refers to skill discretion and decision authority, which are both positively related to job satisfaction, in turn, decreasing feelings of burnout (Chiarelli-Helminiak, 2014). To provide FIs with more control, organizational leaders should provide schedule flexibility and training for more senior FIs to supervise and train junior FIs. This training, as requested by FIs in this study, should provide the opportunity to interact and engage with other workers and experts in their field. Given the wide availability of web-based trainings (aka “webinars”), it is understandable that agencies would utilize these cost-saving trainings that do not require travel. A Colorado study of child welfare caseworkers and others in the field, with similar demographic characteristics to the present study, found that the majority of respondents would be interested in online, webinar trainings; however, qualitative responses noted that in-person training would provide increased opportunities for interaction and increased engagement from participants. On the other hand, some respondents suggested that webinars were more convenient due to lack of travel time needed and increased convenience, and these may be especially effective if they occur in a group setting within their agencies to allow for coworker interaction and discussion (Ward, Lamm, & Pukstas-Bernard, 2009).

Occasionally providing for trainings that occur off-site has the possibility of reinvigorating FIs and allowing them the chance to ask questions and seek advice they may not receive at their current agency. This could also take the form of sending the most qualified individuals to trainings, then having them return to the agency and present on what they have learned to those who did not attend, therefore engaging those who wish to the leave office and those who do not have the time to travel. Overall, professional development opportunities have the potential of not only keeping FIs up-to-date with methods and laws governing their work but also increasing feelings of confidence in their work, which can ideally lead to greater satisfaction and comfort in work-related decision-making.

Other organizational factors involve explicit expectations for roles and responsibilities, increased communication, and accountability within the working environment (Meldrum, King, & Spooner, 2002). Moreover, having a group focus on reducing and preventing stress, supportive and respectful work environments, along with positive interpersonal and collegial relationships with coworkers in and outside of the workplace, are all important considerations to reducing burnout (Conrad & Kellar-Guenther, 2006; Myers & Wee, 2002). If addressed properly, organizational issues could, potentially, be rectified given a greater understanding among leaders that reducing burnout among employees may be beneficial for more than just employee retainment. This was suggested by FIs in the current study through the use of agency “retreats” and mentions of a supportive and collaborative work environment where coworkers are able to rely on each other for emotional support. Social support within the workplace has been reported as “the best coping strategy which offers the strongest preventative of burnout in child welfare workers” (Parry, 1989, as cited in D. G. Anderson, 2000, p. 841).

Limitations and Future Research

The current study is not without limitations. First, while the data were culled from a cross-sectional online survey of FIs from across the United States, the sample is not representative of all FIs and should be interpreted with caution. At the time of data collection, there was no known registry of FIs or ICAC task force members from which a reliable sampling frame could be developed. When combined with the diversity of agencies employing FIs, a purposive snowball sampling technique using two distinct listservs was deemed most effective in reaching respondents. Nevertheless, this sample is similar to those used in other studies of FIs, in that the majority of participants are female and White, with an average age of about 40 years old (Bonach & Heckert, 2012; Chiarelli-Helminiak, 2014).

Second, the ProQOL-V assesses burnout as a global measure. Since these data were collected, several studies have called into question the construct validity of the ProQOL, noting potential issues with overlap between the three subscales used (Cieslak et al., 2014; Heritage et al., 2018); however, it is suggested that the measure can still be used if certain recommendations are followed. To combat this concern, future studies should examine the personal and work-related factors associated with burnout using multidimensional measures such as the Maslach Burnout Inventory (Maslach & Jackson, 1981) or the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory (Halbesleben & Demerouti, 2005). It should be noted that these measures are lengthier and more expensive than the ProQOL; therefore, these may not be feasible for shorter instruments or agencies/researchers with a lack of financial resources.

Finally, given that organizational support and acknowledgment was a significant factor and theme in the data, future studies would benefit from exploring the impact of organizational justice on symptoms of burnout. Organizational justice assesses the degree to which employees feel that agency decisions and the manner in which they are treated are fair and balanced (Folger & Greenberg, 1985). While criminal justice organizations cannot control how the system operates, employees may be better able to cope with negative outcomes if they perceive that their agencies support their opinions and decisions regarding a particular case or issue.

Conclusion

A common problem reported among FIs in this study, and most likely CMIs around the country, is feeling overwhelmed with work, which is one of the most consistent predictors of burnout (Alarcon, 2011). This variable was significantly predictive of burnout in the quantitative analysis and regularly appeared in qualitative responses as a “massive” or generally unmanageable workload. It is often not within agency budgets to place limits on the number of cases an FI has open at any given time, with new cases constantly appearing. Unsurprisingly, it has been reported that the highest rates of burnout among mental and behavior health professions are present in those working with traumatized children (Sprang, Craig, & Clark, 2011). While burnout is thought of as a gradual buildup of feelings and consequences (Cherniss, 1980), its correlation (Cieslak et al., 2014; Meadors et al., 2009–2010; Townsend & Campbell, 2009) and possible causal relationship to STS (Shoji et al., 2015) should be cause for concern. STS is considered a form of post-traumatic stress disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), in which symptoms can disrupt both an individual’s work-related responsibilities and his/her personal life (Bride, Robinson, Yegidis, & Figley, 2004; Figley, 1995). This makes it particularly salient for agencies employing FIs to recognize and offer opportunities for coping.

The health and well-being of FIs and investigators of child maltreatment, generally, is essential to diligent processing of cases and, therefore, holding offenders accountable. Providing support, opportunities for professional development, and making the health and well-being a priority of these agencies is the next logical step in preventing the loss of these much-needed individuals.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Ashley K. Fansher

Notes

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