Abstract
Social media have affected daily activities, communication practices, and business practices throughout society. Social media are more frequently embraced in higher education as well. One indication of this growth is the fact that more than half of all teaching faculty use social media at least monthly for professional reasons, with professors in professions and applied sciences being at the forefront of the use. Interviews with more than 20 industry professionals representing nonprofits, corporations, and subject matter experts provide insights into key considerations for social media education. Future social media education should provide not only academic training but also industry expertise.
Introduction
Social media can be defined as a series of
virtual platforms allow user-generated content to be shared in highly dynamic and interactive communities in real time, which allows for co-creating of content, crowdsourcing of ideas and perspectives, and even the editing and extending of conversations and ideas to the next level within a respective platform and with a particular community. (Freberg, 2016, p. 773)
In addition, social media sometimes are referred to as “emerging media” or “new media” to capture the association of social media with the advanced integration, strategy, and application of new communication technologies (Duhé, 2015). Social media have affected daily activities, communication practices, and business practices throughout society over the past few years. In 2013, social media platform LinkedIn listed “social media marketing” as number 1 on its list of “The 25 Hottest Skills That Got People Hired” (Murthy, 2013).
To keep pace with this demand, higher education is trying to respond to the growing expectations and changing needs for social media competency expressed by future employers in industry such as brand managers for corporations and practitioners working in public relations agencies. At times, conflicting views about social media competency held by academics and practitioners have been the source of conflict. In his Harvard Business Review article, Michael King (2015) characterized the emerging crisis as resulting from an imbalance between industry expectations and higher education foundations for learning and education:
The speed of technological innovation and industry demands is moving faster than higher education’s ability to adapt. The system continues to focus on lectures and exams, leaving students underprepared to enter today’s workforce. They’re suffering as a result—along with businesses and higher education institutions themselves. How can we expect students to be effective and successful employees when we’re using outdated models to prepare them? (Para. 2)
More students enter universities as digital natives, or learners who have grown up in a world with social media and expect it to be integrated into all of their experiences. To better meet these students halfway, institutions are grappling with the best ways to integrate social media as a pedagogical practice and also to prepare students for the professional use of social media (Fratti, 2013). As a result of these pressures, faculty are increasingly encouraged to be “social” professors. Not only should they study social media as a form of communication, but they should also be regular users of social media themselves. Some, but not all, faculty members have embraced social media as teaching tools as well as using social media to manage their professional persona (Pearson Learning Solutions, 2013).
There is a growing need to provide dedicated academic instruction designed to prepare graduates for careers in which they will use social media strategically. Nearly all organizations, including corporations, nonprofits, and government organizations, share the need for having employees with social media expertise. Academics desiring to provide that preparation can benefit from communication with potential employers in industry regarding their expectations. This study attempts to provide this industry guidance to academicians by examining industry professionals’ beliefs regarding necessary curriculum elements and core competencies needed by faculty teaching social media courses. In particular, this study focuses on expectations for communication-related disciplines, such as journalism, public relations, and marketing.
Literature Review
Social Media in Higher Education
Social media as a pedagogical approach has gained popularity in the last several years (Kinsky, Freberg, Kim, Kushin, & Ward, 2016). It has been suggested that social media technologies not only allow for the facilitation of class connection and conversations, but actually have the potential to be an “enhancer of learning” (Tess, 2013, p. A60). There are seemingly two tracts of scholarship within this topic. The first examines informal learning skills, and the second explores implications for formal learning of specific skills.
Informal Learning
Informal learning includes the ways students experience the environment of a classroom, choose to engage with their peers, and build relationships and interact with faculty. Junco, Heibergert, and Loken (2010) explored the ways in which the use of Twitter, a micro-blogging platform, increases student engagement in courses and, ultimately, affects student grades. Specifically exploring active and informal learning, Kassens-Noor (2012) reported that Twitter facilitates the potential for stronger group content creation, but may limit self-reflection among students due to the character limit on the platform. Facebook has been used as a means of student advising to introduce students to future roommates to even providing information about upcoming courses that will be offered at the university (Amador & Amador, 2014). Wodzicki, Schwämmlein, and Moskaliuk (2012) suggested that “Social media provides multiple opportunities that may be exploited for learning and knowledge processes in general” (p. 9). Beyond these general, or informal, learning opportunities made possible by the introduction of social media into higher education, there is also a growing body of research that examines formal, skills-based learning via social media.
Formal Learning
In today’s environment, more potential employers are looking for professionals who are equipped to manage specific social media elements within the job place (Brown, 2014). Due to the rise of social media within the professional sphere, academic programs have taken initial steps to equip their students. One of the most popular social media platforms, Facebook, has received a great deal of attention from scholars. Wang et al. (2012) found that using Facebook groups was beneficial and easy to set up, allowing for simple course implementation. However, students expressed concern about their privacy rights due to the platform’s characteristics. Dyson, Vickers, Turtle, Crown, and Tassone (2015) also examined Facebook as a platform, particularly for lecture-based courses, and found that the timing of social media content being posted and students’ perceptions of the use of social media within classes had a significant impact on the learning that would occur in a course. In addition, Forgie, Duff, and Ross (2013) explored the ways in which micro-blogging platforms, such as Twitter, could assist in the education of medical students. This study focused on the way Twitter facilitated conversations and the sharing of course-related ideas among the students.
Social Media Communication-Focused Education
Several scholars have focused specifically on the ways social media (social media analytics, writing, campaigns, etc.) have been used in educational settings for courses in communication-focused disciplines such as journalism, public relations, and marketing. For example, Anderson, Swenson, and Kinsella (2014) created a crisis simulation where students had an immersive learning experience using social media. This exercise provided students with a simulated, in-class crisis to which they needed to respond in real time as a way to learn about crisis communication practices. This study is one example of how educators enhance key course competencies through the integration of social media into a course. Other studies have explored the ways in which we train students for professional behavior and management of social media (Kinsky et al., 2016).
Faculty Use of Social Media
Higher education is focusing on personalized education, including flipped classrooms, distance learning, and on-demand education (Waldeck, 2007). These alternate delivery methods all have their strengths and weaknesses from the faculty perspective. Concerns raised about teaching in other than face-to-face settings are echoes in the perspectives faculty share regarding the use of social media in the classroom. For example, “friending” students is still viewed as a way to engage students on social media in a personal way, which is different from connecting with colleagues and practitioners working in the field (professional use of social media). The Pearson Learning Report (2013) identified concerns involving expanded workdays, privacy, and classroom culture as reasons why faculty had hesitations about the implementation of social media (Pearson Learning Solutions, 2013). In spite of these concerns, several studies have found an increased professional use of social media by academics (Hung & Yuen, 2010; Muñoz & Wood, 2015; Tess, 2013).
Despite a growing number of social media courses offered in departments of communication and business, there is an apparent divide between industry professional expectations and the academic preparation offered to students. While previous studies have explored the pedagogical value of social media and the value of skills-specific training, particularly in fields such as public relations, there is a gap in the research that examines specific competencies that should be taught within social media courses. In addition, these questions need to be explored from an industry professional perspective to equip students with competencies expected by future employers. The industry professionals are in a unique position of having to hire and train incoming talent, so their insights into the gaps in the preparation of future social media professionals can help academics tailor their courses accordingly. In light of these needs, the following research questions were developed:
Methodology
To address these questions, interviews were conducted with 20 industry professionals representing an array of backgrounds, all with particular expertise in social media.
The participants were selected based on their expertise within the industry and direct involvement in social media activities. The authors selected potential participants based on their presence on social media and expertise in the field. Of the 20 participants who were interviewed, all of them had at least 5 years of experience working in social media, but more than half had at least 10 or more years in the industry.
To have qualified participants who would have direct knowledge of hiring expectations for social media professionals as well as a pulse on the industry, purposive sampling was used. Participants were from the United States and were all older than 18 years. Participants included both males and females ranging from entry-level professionals to senior-level managers, and the ages were between 23 and 55 years. The industry professionals in this study came from various backgrounds and associations which include the following: major nonprofits (four), consulting firms (three), public relations agencies (six), corporate brands (five), and one university along with one nongovernment organization. The participants interviewed along with their associations are listed in Table 1. This cross-section of organizations allowed for a wide sampling of experts and experiences within the interviews. No participants were compensated for their involvement. This study was approved by the researchers’ institutional review boards, and participants consented to having their names and organizations published in this study.
Industry Professionals Interviewed.
The interviews were conducted in person or over the phone, based on the participants’ availability and geographic location. To allow for participants to fully expand in various areas, and to allow the researchers to follow up on any responses that might be of particular interest to this study, a semistructured interview protocol was developed (Rubin & Rubin, 2005). The protocol covered basic expectations of social media education, what faculty should understand and do, and specific content, such as ethics and legal obligations. The researchers independently, qualitatively coded the transcripts from the interviews to identify prominent themes, and then used the constant comparison method recommended by Glaser and Strauss (1967), an approach used for research that has limited existing constructs. Next, researchers used an open-coding procedure to refine the initial themes and verify support for the themes based on quotes from the transcripts (Lindlof & Taylor, 2002). Finally, the researchers discussed any inconsistencies in the coding to ensure validity and reliability of the categories, finishing with a coding scheme.
Results
Based on the 20 interviews with social media professionals, several themes emerged to address the research questions of this study.
RQ1: What Classes or Specific Topics Should Be Taught in Social Media Curriculum?
Content creation
Entry professionals are expected to have key competencies in the development of content. Pointing out the value of this area, Social Media Examiner founder Michael Stelzner commented, “Often times we’re creating videos, audio or writing. The whole craft of developing material is something most social media marketers have no training or background in. This is going to be massively important for students and professionals moving forward.” In addition, a professional from Make-a-Wish Foundation (Orange County/Inland Empire), Kara Bautch, mentioned that a significant focus for her when training people on social media is “teaching them what our company voice is and how to communicate with that voice across multiple platforms.” Further emphasizing this point, a social media manager for Compassion International, Sam Hoover, explained that “whether it is a seven or eight hundred word blog post or a sixty second video,” students should be able to identify that there are many types of content used in social media. “Having the experience of being able to create all of it and then figuring out what is your niche will really drive not just the organization that you’re working for, but your future as a practitioner.” It is the ability to create content that will help differentiate leaders within social media.
Marketing and public relations principles
Beyond content creation, many professionals also stressed the need for curriculum to teach basic marketing principles such as consumer behaviors, market research, and relationship building. Social media expert and author Deirdre Breakenridge commented that students should “know how to build relationships with the media, bloggers, customers, and other stakeholder groups through different channels.” The idea of the strategy or philosophy behind social media being an important component to curriculums was also emphasized by others.
The principles behind public relations and marketing can be the conduit through which students begin applying best practices from both industries. A social media professional from the American Red Cross, Amy Gerber, mentioned,
I think it would be helpful to flesh out best practices with real-life case studies—transition the academic into application. Given that information and situations move so quickly in the social realm, it’s important that students develop critical thinking and problem-solving skills that will help them be more nimble when they find themselves managing official brand channels.
Writing
One significant area of focus for professionals when identifying core components for a social media curriculum was writing. The director of communications at Discovery Cube LA and OC, Dan Natsiki, said, “I think it all comes down to writing” as he emphasized the basics of things such as spelling and grammar. Helping students learn to reflect a brand or organization’s voice is a key component in great storytelling for brands. Sam Hoover stated, “It’s figuring out how to intentionally be relational and be conversational, as well as still talking like a business and still representing the business or organization that you’re speaking on behalf of on the social channel.”
The ability to capture the personality of a brand and write in an engaging manner is a rare and sought-after skill, according to the global and brand marketing professional for football and basketball from Adidas, Jeremy Darlow:
It’s a rare skill and I’ve only come across one person in my career with social media that I would say has been exceptional at it through social media. You need a copywriter level talent to write your social copy, otherwise you’re liable to have stale, recycled commentary that doesn’t feel human. Again, it goes back to making your voice human, the best writers make a reader feel like they’re talking to someone, having a conversation or are in the room with someone speaking, not simply reading from a pamphlet. If you can find someone with the writing ability and instincts of a brand manager, you have yourself a successful social media manager, in my opinion.
Another point is making sure to tie the writing with the analytics function of the campaign to look at the complete picture. A social and public relations strategist who is the president and CEO of her own consulting company, Shonali Burke, pointed out,
The other thing, this is not social per se, I would want them to understand analytics in relations to writing. People know there’s a lot there but there is still the norm to do campaign URL. So, even though it is not social media per se, I think it would be interesting to include this in the class. I think it would be important for them to get the tactical experience and hands on work experience and tie this into analytics.
As Shonali Burke also mentioned, students should know how to construct a campaign URL, or designated online place containing all campaign information for a client. This focus on practical business application with campaigns was emphasized as a way to truly connect classroom learning to a lived experience. “Lots of the classes are just basic starter courses. What needs to be taught are the deeper, more advanced techniques in social media. Diving in and giving real world experience is one of the best ways to do that,” said Kristi Torrington. It is within these types of courses that students would also need to grapple with the place of organic social media strategies and paid placement.
Analytics
For some entry professionals, the biggest skillset will not be how to create an entire campaign, however. It will be how to evaluate a campaign’s impact. Matt Kelly, a public relations and social media professional with Golin, stressed that this is why it is crucial for students to know how to measure and report on success of social initiatives. Echoing this need for students to have a deep grasp of analytics, Deirdre Breakenridge said, “It is imperative for students to learn how to measure social media communication, so they can tie their communication programs to not only specific outputs and outtakes, but also to organizational outcomes, which is business impact.” While teaching analytics, professionals anticipate students are equipped to not only interpret the data but also present the data.
Crisis
A final area that emerged in key components to curriculums was the inclusion of crisis training. Crisis communication expert Melissa Agnes noted, “We are lacking the corporate culture or risk assessment in our communication. We see this all the time on social media.” To help educators incorporate crisis training in social media courses, she suggests bringing in case studies or asking students to assess their own client campaigns with the question, “what could go wrong.” She said that crisis training is “not about one lesson or activity, but it’s important to engrain it into their thought process in developing and using the tools.” Kara Bautch also explained case studies would be a helpful way to integrate legal considerations and message development into a curriculum. “I think knowing the terminology to use, what could get a company in to hot water, etc. Perhaps something with case studies or examples of a situation and how to avoid or handle it.” At the end of the day, crisis training seems to provide a specific focus that can help students differentiate themselves from other applicants.
RQ2: Describe What It Means to Be a Professor Teaching Courses in Social Media
Connector between the industry and academy
Professionals frequently stated that the role of a social media faculty member is to be someone who bridges the industry and the academy. Often, this is done by having previous experience in the industry. “Ideally, I think a professor in social media would possess a diverse professional background in communications, multimedia, and new technology,” said Amy Gerber. This is a concept that Kristi Torrington also emphasized:
They should be able to think outside the box and get students to interact with real life situations. Today education is so much more than getting a degree. It’s important that professors talk about the realities of the job market and give students tools to be able to survive life after college. I don’t think it’s someone who necessarily needs to have a PhD in social media, but someone with real world experience is best.
Community builder
In addition to being someone who has experience within the industry itself, professionals anticipate that social media professors are still active on social media. Students should be able to look at their professors and see that they are building community in social spaces by establishing relationships and connections with others on an online platform. Sam Hoover explained that
I would hesitate to sit under a professor who isn’t active themselves. It kind of goes back to the theory versus the hands on tactical approach. If a professor only has a theory of how it should work or how it could work or even how it has worked in the past, and isn’t necessarily present on social media now to see how thing are evolving . . . You have to be active on social media in order to stay on top of it all.
Ultimately, being active in the social media landscape can go straight to the heart of the professor’s perceived credibility by students. Samantha Hughey noted, “It’s hard for me to really learn, or take a professor seriously, if they have not made a name for themselves in the industry—especially in social media.” Matt Kelly succinctly explained this by saying, “a professor teaching social media should be a connector, bridging the gap between students and professionals.”
Role-model and mentors
Mentorship was one of the primary themes emerging from the professionals as a key success point for professors to take note of when teaching social media classes. Deirdre Breakenridge emphasized the importance of this by stating, “Mentoring is extremely important. However, the traditional mentor does not have to be a professor or a professional where you’re interning or working. Today, through social media, students and professionals can network in different social media communities.” Along those same lines, Samantha Hughey noted,
I wholeheartedly believe in creating a network or a group of people that students can reach out to and talk with. I think by incorporating guest speakers into classes, especially the intro courses, so students can see what jobs are out there and in what fields is very important—then as the professor and students and speakers see fit they can start up a separate dialogue.
Discussion
Social Media Curriculum
Because social media are a platform than can foster robust learning (Tess, 2013), there are numerous institutions that have added relevant curricula. Hand-in-hand with this growth, there still seems to be a growing gap between what these courses are teaching and what the industry expects of future social media professionals (King, 2015). Michael Stelzner identified this struggle when he noted that “the struggle is do you create a curriculum that will tomorrow be obsolete? It comes down to teaching kids how to perform in any network. Trying to figure out fundamentals regardless of network.” A key part of this is equipping students to write across platforms, effectively learning to leverage a platform’s culture and tone to deliver strategic content. While writing has repeatedly been lauded as a core competency, the foundational impact to a dynamic course, such as social media, can be overlooked in favor of focusing on specific platform uses. Writing should remain a cornerstone in social media education. In addition, educators must focus on helping students recognize the appropriate voice and tone for various platforms. This requires faculty to have not only a strong understanding of how to help students develop written pieces but also a comprehension of the expectation for writing required by each platform. For example, the tone and length for a Twitter post is drastically different than one designed for Snapchat. While curricula seek to keep up with the rapid pace of the social media industry, this study provides support that the fundamentals of communication still form the foundations for social media education.
Professionals are also searching for students with basic competencies in business. While basic skills such as writing and communication are crucial, students who work professionally with social media must have certain skillsets that are unique to a business setting. Throughout this study, many recommendations were provided for how these concepts can be integrated into a single course or a curriculum. For programs that have an entire degree or concentration in social media, these topics provide a framework for individual classes. For example, a course on social media and business could examine the ways in which public relations and marketing theory support the practice of social media. A digital analytics course would provide extended time for students to learn to interpret and provide reports based on social media metrics, incorporating both paid and organic analytic data. A capstone course may include a campaign for a client that is done individually or in a group, bringing together content from across the social media degree curriculum. Ultimately, curricula need to provide a conduit for students to explore the practical implications of representing organizations online. Service-learning projects with real-world clients, discussions of case law and social media, financial budgeting, and ad space planning, as well as the ethical implications for social media, are important components for a well-rounded social media education. The growing breadth of knowledge required of social media professionals seem to indicate that it is, perhaps, a subject matter that is expanding well beyond a single-course footprint within curricula.
Social Media Educators
The interviews reflected an increasing expectation that faculty have had professional experience using social media within the industry. The interviews did not specify how much experience faculty members needed in social media but noted that they should have at least enough to be connected with industry and to be knowledgeable about how to apply these platforms in and out of the classroom. Although not specifically mentioned in the interviews with industry professionals, boundary issues related to the ethics of connecting with students on social media (e.g., connections on LinkedIn or friending them on Facebook) are a common concern among faculty. This topic will be explored further in future research with faculty members. We intend to discuss how faculty in social media classes balance the personal and professional connections they form on social media with students, fellow colleagues, and the professional community.
Similar to other fields, practical experience within social media provides credibility and context for educators who choose to teach the subject. Professionals expressed the opinion that faculty represent a model or standard to students. Faculty who simply discuss social media but do not model its use and who fail to build communities in social spaces seem antithetical to the very essence of what the technology is designed to foster. This is a different level of expectation than is found typically in other subject matter. With the rapid change of social media, faculty are challenged to not only keep up their professional experience and background but also to adjust their courses to reflect industry changes. This is perhaps one of the greatest stressors for faculty who choose to teach social media. The expectation should be the professors are active, providing both connection as well as mentorship to students. Social media are not only a teaching tool but a networking one as well. This means that faculty not only understand how to use the technology but also use the platform as a means to introduce, connect, and guide their students in professional spheres. In other words, faculty who teach social media should be influencers in the social spaces.
There were several limitations to this study. Professionals in certain areas and roles participated in this interview and were all based in the United States. However, future studies could not only expand this to other social media professionals working in other industries but also reach out to interview professionals in other countries to get a global context of the social media curriculum. Future studies could explore intention to enroll in certain social media programs based on certain skills and program criteria from a quantitative standpoint.
Conclusion
In the changing landscape of social media education, there is an increasing need to have core competencies that equip students and meet the expectations of the industry. This study found that there are core concepts that professionals believe distinguish entry-level professionals and which should be taught within courses designed to equip students with social media competencies. In addition, this study identified that there are expectations that faculty who teach social media courses not only possess prior experience in the industry but also are continuing to be an influencer within the social media space. As curriculums continue to be designed and universities recruit faculty to provide expertise in this sector, it is valuable to consider the expectations of the industry.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.