Fitting It All In? A Census of Undergraduate Ethics and Leadership Courses in Accredited U.S. Journalism and Mass Communication Programs

Abstract

As journalism and mass communication programs struggle to help prepare their students for the unknown digital future, many are answering the industry call to inject curricula with the instruction of digital skills. However, this likely comes at the cost of teaching long-standing conceptual courses, including media ethics, or introducing new ones, including media leadership. Although university administrators are likely to say their curricula adequately address these issues, the reality is that they may not. This study analyzed undergraduate degree requirements for all accredited U.S.-based journalism and mass communication degree programs (N = 119) to evaluate the course offerings in ethics and leadership.

Keywords

curriculum ethics journalism and mass communication programs journalism and mass communication education leadership undergraduate education

Perhaps the most pressing issue in media education today is the frenzied search for the best way to prepare students for an unknown digital future. The immediate, and perhaps most obvious, method some journalism and mass communication (JMC) programs employ to help prepare students for the future is to inject curricula with digital skills, such as social media engagement, analytics, and data visualization (Bullard & McLendon, 2017; Mills, 2017; Mullin, 2016; Royal, 2013). It is for good reason; many professional organizations have decried the lack of digital competency and called for more training (Finberg & Klinger, 2014; ICFJ, 2017).

However, this study questions the wisdom of today’s intense focus on digital skills at many JMC programs. If new skills courses are to be added to a curriculum, courses that have long existed—like media ethics—may be deemphasized or jettisoned. In addition, diminished opportunities exist to introduce new conceptual courses, such as media leadership, that prepare students to effectively lead media industries in an unknown future.

Although core U.S. JMC curricula have traditionally focused on building hard skills, they commonly also emphasized a set of ethical values based on the important links between journalism, democracy, and the public interest. Leadership education, however, has not traditionally been a curricular priority. Nevertheless, today’s media industries are in the midst of radical change, creating an urgent need to introduce leadership education. JMC graduates must see themselves not only as creators of content but also as those who will lead media industries during this era of constant change. The heightened concern about the proper role of the media, and consequently, the role that universities play in educating media professionals, is perhaps best illustrated by the events that followed the election of Donald Trump.

The November 2016 Presidential Election quickly embroiled media organizations and their executives in a firestorm of controversy as the president-elect launched an unprecedented attack on the media. Before Mr. Trump’s election, pundits questioned whether his candidacy would require media professionals to rethink how they approach their jobs (Gebelhoff, 2017). Some complained the media empowered a Trump campaign that otherwise would not have succeeded, whereas others asserted the media abdicated its truth-telling role by not quickly calling out false statements.

Journalists live, and die, by ethical codes, carefully balancing their duties to “seek truth and report it” with the need to “act independently” (Society of Professional Journalists, 2014). Executives spend long hours contemplating how best to handle criticism of their organizations amid waning public trust in the media. As the hostile political climate and daunting media ecosystem converge, the pressure on front-line reporters and high-level decision-makers intensifies. Some insist ethical norms are evolving, and the old rule that journalists should not become the story has changed (Wallace, 2017). Others—such as public radio program Marketplace—remain steadfast in their belief that journalistic objectivity and neutrality are timeless values that must never be abandoned (Owen, 2017).

In addition, leaders at media organizations face down strategic dilemmas ranging from sustainably replacing obsolete business models to building new workflows that reflect developing technology to devising management approaches that maximize an increasingly diverse workforce.

But where does all of this back-and-forth leave journalists who have long been taught not to become the story and to remain unbiased and independent? What does it mean for executives tasked with strategizing for the future? And how will it impact universities training the next generation of front-line reporters and high-level decision-makers? For sure, it portends a growing importance for the role of leadership and ethics in JMC curricula.

University administrators would surely assert their JMC programs readily address ethics and leadership. But with curricular reform so squarely focused on digital skills, is this the reality? Even accreditation standards have been updated to incorporate these digital skills. The Accrediting Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communication’s (ACEJMC) Professional Values and Competencies state that graduates of accredited programs should be able to “apply tools and technologies appropriate for the communications professions in which they work” (ACEJMC, 2017). The same document outlines a commitment to ethics education, noting the need for students to “demonstrate an understanding of professional ethical principles and work ethically in the pursuit of truth, accuracy, fairness and diversity” (ACEJMC, 2017). But the document is silent on the topic of leadership—a core skill that universities have only recently begun to emphasize (Greenwald, 2010).

Given the likely tension between digital skills instruction and conceptual coursework in curricula, this article examines the role ethics and leadership courses play at accredited undergraduate JMC programs in the United States. Researchers evaluated the course offerings in ethics and leadership at nearly 100 programs.

Literature Review

In recent years, calls have come to urgently rethink JMC education, which has lagged behind the rapidly changing media ecosystem. Some point to declining enrollments in JMC programs—especially in journalism—and warn that without significant change, traditional JMC education will struggle to remain relevant and appealing to students (Gotlieb, McLaughlin, & Cummins, 2017). Others warn of a jarring mismatch between the media ecosystem JMC programs introduce students to and the ecosystem students encounter after graduation (Webb, 2015). Pavlik’s influential 2013 article in Journalism & Mass Communication Educator called for all aspects of media education to be reconsidered. His greatest concern was that if media education does not transform, it will no longer remain relevant: “If there are no jobs or careers for journalists or other media professionals, at least not the jobs they have occupied for more than a century, what is the role of professional journalism and mass communication education?” (Pavlik, 2013, p. 212).

Some educators have heeded these calls for change and spearheaded discussions about changing the JMC curriculum. The degree to which these discussions have translated into changes varies. Some universities have opted to inject digital skills into existing courses or create new courses within a traditional curriculum. A smaller number of programs have undergone full-scale curricular overhauls, either renovating the entire curriculum or creating new digitally focused programs alongside traditional ones (Mills, 2017; Royal, 2016).

No matter how dramatic the changes, all programs face similar challenges when determining what skills and knowledge a revised curriculum should include. Given the finite limits on time and space in the curriculum, the instruction of existing skills and knowledge must be curtailed if new skills and knowledge are integrated. And, as Blom and Davenport (2012, p. 74) point out, the decisions are not easy: “Unfortunately, not enough time exists to prepare students to the satisfaction of everyone in all competencies within a four-year degree program.”

This is a particularly acute challenge in light of ACEJMC accreditation requirements, which place strict limits on the number of JMC courses students may take to ensure students undertake a robust liberal arts education (ACEJMC, 2017). Two prominent programs—at Northwestern and UC Berkeley—have recently responded to this challenge by dropping accreditation. Medill Dean Brad Hamm singled out accreditation restrictions as an impediment to innovation (Fain, 2017).

It is unknown—empirically, at least—how programs that have decided both to reform their curricula and continue ACEJMC accreditation accommodate new skills and knowledge into an already crowded curriculum.

Some are concerned that curriculum committees are responding to this challenge by cutting back on or eliminating media ethics (Blom & Davenport, 2012). Other commentators worry JMC curricula are becoming so crowded with digital skills, leaving no “room” for “soft” skills demanded by the new media ecosystem, namely, those related to leadership (Bronstein & Fitzpatrick, 2015).

Ethics

In a 1904 article defending his vision for the journalism college at Columbia University, Joseph Pulitzer (1904) wrote that the instruction of media ethics is the “heart of the whole matter” of journalism education:

There will naturally be a course in ethics, but training in ethical principles must not be confined to that. It must pervade all the courses. Ideals, character, professional standards not to be infringed without shame, a sense of honor which, as Burke said of the totally undeserving French noblesse, feels a stain like a wound: these will be the motif of the whole institution, never forgotten even in its most practical work . . . . Above knowledge, above news, above intelligence, the heart and soul of a paper lie in its moral sense, in its courage, its integrity, its humanity, its sympathy for the oppressed, its independence, its devotion to the public welfare, its anxiety to render public service. Without these there may be smart journalists, but never a truly great or honorable one. (p. 667)

At the turn of the 21st century, ethics was firmly rooted as a key element of most U.S. JMC curricula. Lambeth, Christians, Fleming, and Lee (2004) found that 152 of 247 JMC programs surveyed (61.5%) reported a free-standing ethics course. Just more than one third of those programs (37.2%) required students to complete media ethics to graduate (Lambeth et al., 2004).

As the digital revolution has taken hold, commentators have renewed Pulitzer’s call for media ethics. The ease with which editors and reporters can distribute information means they must often make instant judgments with significant ethical and legal implications (Plaisance, 2006). In addition, technological change has led to an increase in plagiarism and copyright infringement (Smethers, 1997). A solid education in ethics is crucial, given the increasing number of freelance and citizen journalists who do not have editors to catch mistakes or institutional resources to defend against lawsuits (Rappaport & Leith, 2007).

Little additional empirical research has been conducted to understand the media ethics landscape since the 2004 longitudinal study of Lambeth et al. However, in 2012, when Blom and Davenport surveyed undergraduate directors of journalism programs, their most commonly agreed-upon core courses included media ethics and law (alongside reporting, multimedia storytelling, visual communication, and feature writing; Lambeth et al., 2004).

Leadership

In 2010, the Carnegie-Knight Initiative on the Future of Journalism Education reignited a perennial criticism of journalism education: that it focuses on teaching skills and neglects to develop industry leaders. It observed that “too many schools of journalism continued to attract undergraduates who primarily wanted to take how to classes to develop newspaper clips as well as radio and TV reels they could use to get a job” (King, 2010). The Carnegie-Knight Initiative followed the controversy kicked off by Columbia University President Lee Bollinger’s 2002 decision to suspend the search for a new journalism dean. Chief among his concerns was that journalism education dwelled too heavily on skills training at the expense of fostering a broader understanding of the profession:

We must beware of placing too much emphasis on the beguiling qualities of basic skills training. Students naturally seek out this training, often because they are eager to become professionals and it is enticing to perform that role right away, and sometimes also because getting a job is foremost in their minds and they think basic skills will enhance their immediate employment prospects. Although students should finish journalism school in possession of the skills required to work right away as daily print or broadcast reporters, they must acquire not only these foundational skills, but also a mastery of journalistic inquiry and expression at their highest, most sophisticated, level. This implies an educational environment where clear expression interacts with complex understanding (Bollinger, 2003).

Commentators called on JMC education to incorporate leadership training, especially, during an era of media transformation. Bronstein and Fitzpatrick (2015) argued “journalism and mass communication education clearly must prepare graduates to lead media industries and communication firms in the throes of radical change” (p. 76). They made a convincing case for the urgent need to incorporate leadership education:

Making a substantive, lasting contribution to society may also depend on one’s ability to lead through change . . . Leadership education is still an emerging academic subject without an established set of courses or methods, but the demands on our fields are such that we cannot wait. (Bronstein & Fitzpatrick, 2015, p. 83)

In spite of this urgent need to prepare graduates to lead the transformation of media, the various efforts to rethink JMC curricula have not placed an “explicit emphasis” on leadership education (Bronstein & Fitzpatrick, 2015). Indeed, Blom and Davenport’s (2012) survey found journalism program directors did not include leadership in the list of core courses. Instead, Bronstein and Fitzpatrick observed that JMC curricular reform has prioritized hands-on experiences, neglecting to explicitly address the question of translating “their field-specific expertise into on-the-ground leadership.” Bronstein and Fitzpatrick’s (2015) meta-analysis of leadership education observed that “leadership training is lacking in all areas of mass communication education” (p. 77).

Method

The researchers analyzed undergraduate degree requirements for all accredited U.S.-based JMC degree programs (N = 119). The research team identified degree programs focused on JMC. Degrees in communication, strategic communication, public relations, advertising, entertainment media, and film were not analyzed. For each JMC program, the most recent course catalog or bulletin available online was reviewed to evaluate degree requirements and course descriptions. When a catalog did not contain this information, the researchers located the program’s official webpage for the most up-to-date information.

A single researcher coded the data, searching for terms in course titles and descriptions. For ethics, the search terms “ethics” and “ethical” were used. Courses that included the word in a context that did not relate directly to media ethics were excluded (“work ethic,” for example). For leadership, the search terms “leadership,” “leader,” “manage,” and “management” were used. Courses that included the words in a context that did not relate directly to leading a media organization were excluded (“content management” or “asset management,” for example).

The data were coded using Qualtrics. For both ethics and leadership, the following information was collected: course title, course number, course description, whether the course was a stand-alone course (primary focus was on the topic) and whether the course was required. For ethics, the researcher coded whether the course was combined with law. A third code sheet was used to capture characteristics about each program, including university name, academic unit (college, school, department), and number of full-time faculty.

Findings

Ethics

JMC students at accredited programs face no shortage of courses addressing ethics, but that does not mean students take them. Although every degree program surveyed offers a course addressing ethics, not all courses are focused solely on ethics. At 91% of programs, a free-standing ethics course—where a significant component of the course is dedicated to ethics—is offered.

The same percent of programs (91%) require students to complete a course that mentions ethics—either in the course description or title—as a degree requirement. However, not all of these required courses focus solely on ethics—some may be reporting or photojournalism courses that include ethics in the course description. A smaller percentage (71%) of the 119 programs analyzed require students to complete a free-standing media ethics course.

Although it may seem comforting to think that nearly three-fourths of JMC students must take an ethics course to graduate, these numbers do not tell the whole story. More than half (54%) of the programs that require a course focused on ethics combine it with law—as a course titled media law and ethics, for example. In many instances, students spend merely a semester addressing important topics such as law and ethics. Anecdotal evidence—from colleagues who teach these combined courses—suggests that ethics often gets short-shrift given the perceived importance of legal topics such as defamation, invasion of privacy, and copyright.

Not surprisingly, faculty size plays a role in the robustness of ethics requirements and offerings. Although all 119 programs analyzed offer at least one course that mentions ethics, programs with fewer full-time faculty tend to offer fewer ethics courses. A similar trend can also be seen in the programs requiring a stand-alone ethics course for graduation. Although 92% of the programs with the largest faculties (n > 50) require students to complete an ethics course for graduation, only 73% of the programs with the smallest faculties (n < 10) have a similar requirement.

One interesting development is the combination of ethics and diversity—two of ACEJMC’s Core Values and Competencies—into a single course. In total, 10 programs offer a course with both “ethics” and “diversity” in the course title. At five, it is a required course. A number of programs whose mission statements or program objectives were included in their course catalogs also mention the importance of ethics. Of the 119 programs analyzed, 93 included a mission statement, program objectives, or similar learning outcomes in their catalogs. Ethics was mentioned in 55% of those documents. Interestingly, four programs specifically included the ACEJMC’s (2017) Core Values and Competencies—including its statement about ethics, “demonstrate an understanding of professional ethical principles and work ethically in pursuit of truth, accuracy, fairness and diversity.” Given the abundance of ethics options in the curricula analyzed—72 programs offer more than three courses with ethics in the title or course description—it seems the programs have taken the accreditation core values and competencies to heart even if they do not print them in their catalogs.

Leadership

The state of leadership education is far more bleak. One-third of programs offer no courses that focus on leadership. What is more, at two-thirds of programs that offer a course that includes JMC leadership, leadership elements play a relatively minor role.

Nearly half (45%) of programs offer leadership as a free-standing course, where a significant component of the course is dedicated to the topic. However, just 9% of programs require their students to take courses that include a leadership component. Only three degree programs, a mere 2.5%, require students to complete a free-standing leadership course that focuses significantly on leadership. The vast majority (86%) of programs that offer courses that include a leadership component offer them only as electives, further suggesting programs do not prioritize leadership education.

Even within elective courses that include a leadership component, great variance exists in the prominence of that component. Many programs offer skills courses that simply include leadership among a list of other skills. For example, “International Media Production” included learning the “editorial leadership role” alongside such skills as “writing, reporting, and photographing.” In such a course, there is not likely to be much emphasis on preparing future leaders. Nevertheless, other programs offer robust electives that do emphasize leadership, such as a frequently offered course called “Media Management,” where leadership is central.

In addition, evidence suggests the lack of prioritization of leadership education has little to do with a lack of resources. 11 of the 12 programs with the largest full-time faculties (n > 50) offer leadership education courses; however only one of those programs requires a leadership course. These large schools have the resources to provide leadership courses, yet they do not value the subject area enough to require it.

Limitations of the Research and Areas for Future Research

Curriculum research proves particularly challenging, and as a result, our study has a number of limitations. Chief among them is the difficulty of evaluating catalog information. University catalogs are complex documents, and the information included varies significantly. As a result, some catalogs prove more comprehensive than others—including not only degree requirements and course descriptions for required courses but also a listing of all elective courses, a unit’s mission statement, program learning objectives, and other demographic information related to the major. Universities may have elective courses on the books that are rarely, if ever, offered. Although course descriptions may include references to particular topics, researchers have no way of ensuring those topics are taught in a course.

In addition, our research does not evaluate the myriad factors related to quality of instruction. Course syllabi were not examined to assess the extent to which the topics were covered in any particular class. Faculty credentials were not evaluated to determine whether instructors were qualified to teach ethics or leadership. In essence, our research aims to evaluate the ways programs prioritize instruction in ethics and leadership rather than comment upon the quality of that instruction.

Our research was confined to courses offered by accredited JMC programs. We did not evaluate offerings in communication, strategic communication, film, media studies, or related disciplines at accredited programs. Similarly, our coding did not include ethics or leadership courses required as a part of a university’s general education.

The avenues available for future research are plentiful. At the outset, it would be telling to compare ethics and leadership offerings at accredited and nonaccredited programs with the goal of evaluating the impact of accreditation. Furthermore, a historical analysis of the evolution of curricular offerings could reveal interesting correlations between calls from the industry for an increase in digital skill instruction and changes to JMC degree requirements. Finally, it would be revealing to compare degree requirements for strategic communication and JMC programs at the same university.

Discussion and Conclusion

Media ethics continues to play a central role in U.S. media education. All accredited JMC programs include training in media ethics and nearly three-fourths of all programs (71%) value ethics enough to require students to complete courses where ethics plays a central role. However, some signs suggest that ethics education occupies a diminished position at some programs, especially, those where it is combined with law.

Leadership training for media students is a new concept and has not established a significant foothold in U.S. media education. One-third of accredited JMC degree programs offer no leadership education courses at all. And, at the two-thirds of programs where leadership courses are offered, it is typically an optional elective. It is possible that most JMC undergraduates complete their education without having any exposure significant media leadership training.

As JMC programs respond to the changing media ecosystem with curricular reform, it is clear those decisions need to be undertaken not only with an eye toward preparing students for today’s job market but also with a keen understanding of the knowledge necessary to adapt to continued industry upheavals. Although administrators might conclude that the creation of free-standing courses in ethics and leadership is the quick fix both to ensure compliance with accreditation standards and guarantee students supplement their digital skills with conceptual knowledge, nothing could be further from the truth.

To be sure, stand-alone courses are likely the easiest way for JMC programs to demonstrate to accreditors that students are being educated in a manner that addresses ACEJMC’s Core Values and Competencies. But, free-standing courses also run the risk of isolating conceptual knowledge from professional practice in the eyes of students. If ethics and leadership content is presented in a vacuum, students are likely to devalue these courses—placing their focus on digital skills classes they believe necessary to obtaining a job.

Instead, JMC programs must work to ensure these competencies are spread throughout the 4-year curriculum in a meaningful way. Ethics and leadership must be included in required courses, including reporting and writing, photojournalism, editing, and social media courses as a regular course of practice. Conceptual knowledge must be interwoven into digital skills courses, allowing students to apply what they have learned. Foundational concepts in ethics and leadership must be introduced early so more advanced material can be scaffolded throughout a student’s major courses, and faculty must be qualified to address these important topics even if they fall outside their teaching specializations.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Amy Kristin Sanders

Author Biographies

Andrew Mills is an assistant professor in residence at Northwestern University in Qatar. He teaches courses focused on journalism innovation and the use of emerging digital technology to tell stories. His scholarly research focusses on understanding the transition of jouralism and journalism education to the digital age.

Amy Kristin Sanders is an associate professor in residence at Northwestern University in Qatar and co-author of The First Amendment and the Fourth Estate casebook published by Foundation Press. A licensed attorney, Sanders teaches courses media law and ethics and media & society. She earned her MA/JD at the University of Iowa and her PhD at the University of Florida.

Shakir Shahid Hussain is the blended learning specialist at Northwestern University in Qatar.

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