Sources of High School Student First Amendment Knowledge

Abstract

Support and engagement with the First Amendment among high school students is at a high level; however, little is known regarding the ways high school students learn about the First Amendment. This study examines what sources students learn about the First Amendment from, and if some sources are considered more valuable than others. This study focuses on three primary possible First Amendment sources: parents, classes, and media. This issue is examined through a survey of high school students. The study indicates that classes are the most frequent, and most valuable, source of First Amendment knowledge.

Keywords

First Amendment civics high school students

In summer 2020, high school students across the country made headlines for exercising their First Amendment rights by organizing protests against racism and police brutality (Zaveri, 2020). One of the most notable protests occurred in Tennessee, where six teenagers received national media attention after organizing a march in less than a week that drew 10,000 peaceful protesters (Renkl, 2020). These teenagers are following the actions of other young adults, who in recent years have organized and attended protests for issues including climate change and gun violence (Barnard, 2019; Yee & Blinder, 2018). These actions have indicated a renewal in First Amendment engagement among high school students. In addition to engagement, support for the First Amendment is also strong among high school students. The 2018 Future of First Amendment survey reported that 89% of the high school student respondents supported First Amendment rights (Knight Foundation, 2018). This level of support is higher than First Amendment support reported by adults.¹ While high school student support and engage with their First Amendment rights, it is less clear how the students learn about the First Amendment. This study examines from which sources high school students learn about the First Amendment, and if some sources are considered more valuable than others.

The First Amendment, which provides freedom of speech, the press, assembly, religion, and petition to all Americans, was ratified in 1791, and is considered the “guardian of our democracy” (Brown v. Hartlage, 1982, p. 60). Since the First Amendment was ratified, Americans have enjoyed, tested, and challenged the rights of free expression (Mensing, 2017; Post, 2017). Some of the core goals of the First Amendment are individual self-fulfillment, attainment of truth, participation in decision making and creating a balance between stability and change (Emerson, 1962). The First Amendment provides Americans with access to a full range of information, and the freedom to decide what to do with the information (Kassinger & Kenneth, 2018).

Using social cognitive theory (SCT), this study surveyed high school students to learn more about the sources from which the students learned about the First Amendment and how valuable the students found the various First Amendment sources. This study focuses on parents, peers, classes, and media as the primary sources of First Amendment knowledge. These possible sources were selected based on previous studies that have identified these categories as primary influences for civic education (Keeter et al., 2002; Shah et al., 2007). High school students were chosen as the sample for this research because this is the age when political attitudes, including feelings about the First Amendment, are thought to be solidified. Previous literature indicates that by the age of 14, students consider themselves to have personal political views and an involvement in political culture (Torney-Purta, 2002). Learning more about the sources of knowledge that shape these views can form insight into how civic viewpoints are shaped and lead to future research studying ways to enhance First Amendment knowledge.

Literature Review

Adolescence is viewed as the key time to teach students about the First Amendment and other aspects of civic education. Parents, communities, and the media are the primary sources that contribute to adolescent civic education (Keeter et al., 2002; Shah et al., 2007). Peers are also a key influence on children through childhood and adolescence, providing a source of companionship, entertainment, problem-solving support, emotional support, and a foundation for identity development (Brechwald & Prinstein, 2011; Van Hoorn et al., 2016; Veenstra et al., 2013; Wentzel, 2017). Individuals often form or solidify their political views during adolescence, with many factors affecting their viewpoints, including what they learn and experience in schools, as well as lessons that specifically focus on civic education (Lopez et al., 2009; Torney-Purta, 2002). Learning about the First Amendment is an important part of civic education because it is a core part of the Constitution and can reflect tolerance and respect for others, which are key parts of democracy (Lopez et al., 2009).

Once a civic identity is formed, it usually takes attention, time, and emotional energy to change someone’s mind, especially in America, where people live in a stable political system (Lopez et al., 2009). Engaging in political discussions can positively influence civic knowledge, opinion sophistication, and civic participation; however, adolescents tend not to discuss politics often in their peer groups, and may be raised in homes in which parents tell their children what to think, rather than encouraging children to reach their own political opinions (The Civic Mission of Schools, 2003; McLeod & Chaffee, 1972; Wyatt et al., 2000). Some adolescents may experience the relationship between parents and children as a two-way street, with children able to challenge their parents’ previously held viewpoints (McDevitt & Ostrowski, 2009). The rate at which parents discuss politics and volunteer increases the likelihood that their children will also be civically engaged (Keeter et al., 2002). The community in which the adolescent lives also affects civic views, with young people who grow up in ideologically diverse places tending to be better informed and more civically engaged than their counterparts in ideologically homogeneous places where there is less discussion and political competition (Gimpel et al., 2003).

Civic Education

High-quality civic education, which can be defined as “explicitly teaching the knowledge, skills and values believed necessary for democratic citizenship” (Kahne & Middaugh, 2008, p. 34), holds a precarious position in public schools. Two primary challenges to civic education are the belief that it takes away from subjects such as math, reading, and writing that are the focus of assessment measures, and the difficulties of measuring the effectiveness of civic learning (Kahne & Middaugh, 2008). Adolescents’ civic education can be enhanced by the school environment, where students are exposed to their peers’ ideas and classroom discussion has been found to be a strong predictor of civic growth (Campbell, 2005). While previous research is mixed regarding the effectiveness of civic courses, best practices for civic education include class deliberative discussions and community projects (Feldman et al., 2007). The notion that civic education is not effective may also be due to generational divides, with current high school students being assessed using the same civic measures used for previous generations (including attending meetings and volunteering), instead of using newer measurements that can more accurately gauge current civic engagement, such as social media activism and sharing digital content among peers (Bennett et al., 2011).

While the First Amendment was ratified in 1791, the Supreme Court did not become staunch defenders of the amendment until after World War II, and a push to include First Amendment education in high school classes did not occur until the 1960s. A combination of curriculum development, a keynote address by Supreme Court Justice William Brennan, and a report commissioned by the Ford Foundation on law-related education, all provided momentum toward adding First Amendment curriculum to high school civics and social studies courses (Haynes et al., 2003). These efforts were inspired in part by the results of several surveys in the 1950s that revealed that high school students and recent graduates had very little knowledge of the Bill of Rights. Realizing that high school students were learning little about their personal freedoms during the era of McCarthyism and the Cold War spurred educators to add First Amendment and other law-related materials to school curriculums (Haynes et al., 2003).

SCT

SCT is employed as the guiding theory for this study. SCT posits that portions of a person’s knowledge are acquired from directly observing others in the areas of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences (Bandura, 1986, 2001). A reciprocal relationship occurs among individuals, their behavior and their environment (Bandura, 1986). People learn either by observing others perform a behavior or by consuming various types of mass communication. In addition to the learning that occurs, individuals also learn the consequences related to the behavior and use this information to direct their future behavior. Adolescents also learn social behaviors from peers and their peers’ reinforcement of displayed behaviors. The theory distinguishes among three modes of agency: personal agency exercised individually, proxy agency by which people attempt to create an outcome by influencing others to act on their behalf, and collective agency, by which people act together to shape their future (Bandura, 2002). A core component of SCT is self-efficacy. Self-efficacy is the belief in one’s own ability to organize and execute courses of action (Bandura, 1986). When a person has not yet acquired enough skills to obtain and execute actions, watching the behavior of others (both in person and in the media), may inform their own behavior. The base assumptions of SCT include that, as individual agents, people have intentionality, forethought, self-reactiveness and self-reflectiveness (Bandura, 1989).

In mass communication, images or information repeatedly shown in the media can be potentially processed and absorbed by viewers, and people may change their viewpoint or actions based on what they see in the media (Bandura, 2001, 2011). Symbolic communication can influence human thought, affect and action, both through direct pathways and social mediated pathways (Bandura, 2001). In direct pathways, changes are promoted by informing, motivating, and guiding individuals. In social mediated pathways, media influences link people to social networks that provide natural incentives and personalized guidance. Whether these observations cause a person to change their own behavior is influenced by personal, behavior, and environmental factors, and not all learning will result in a change in behavior. In addition, there are indications that media are the dominant source of political information for most individuals (Graber, 1991). Other studies have found a relationship between media exposure and political participation, notably that reading public affairs news increases political participation, while watching entertainment television decreases political participation (Sotirovic & McLeod, 2001). Using SCT, this study predicts that the more students have learned about the First Amendment from media sources, the more valuable they will consider the First Amendment.

In addition to the media, two of the greatest learning sources for children are their parents and classes (Jennings & Niemi, 1968; McDevitt & Chaffee, 2002; Niemi & Junn, 1998). SCT has also acknowledged that self-efficacy is a part of an individual’s social interactions with parents, peers, and teachers (Bandura, 1997). In addition to self-efficacy, Bandura (2001) has also advanced the notion of collective efficacy, positing that a group’s shared belief in its capability to conduct an action is required to achieve these goals. Bandura’s framework has been used by other researchers who note that SCT has provided a framework for showing the importance of learning certain values from the political culture in which the individuals are socialized (Inglehart, 1990; Sniderman, 1975).

Using SCT, this study asks the following research questions:

Do high school students support the First Amendment?

From what sources do high school students learn about the First Amendment?

Do high school students consider all sources of First Amendment knowledge to be equally valuable?

Method

This research study surveyed high school students in a Midwestern state. The study used a nonprobability, convenience sample of local high students to start learning more about sources of First Amendment knowledge. After Institutional Review Board (IRB) permission was obtained, the researcher created a list of local high school social studies teachers and contacted the teachers asking to survey their students. One high school teacher asked the researcher to distribute in-person, paper surveys during class sessions (n = 41) and four other teachers had their classes take an online version of the survey (n = 69). The survey responses were collected between March and November 2018, from A.P. Government and social studies classes (N = 110). The paper and online surveys distributed consisted of the same survey instrument (Appendix). The survey questionnaire was created to study how well students knew their First Amendment rights, what sources they learned about the First Amendment from, how valuable they found the sources they learned about the First Amendment from, how valuable they considered the First Amendment, and if recent events had impacted their feelings toward the First Amendment. The participants consisted of sophomores, juniors, and seniors, ranging in age from 14 to 18.

A convenience sample such as the one used in this study is not randomly selected from the population of interest, and as such, does not provide a dependable representation of the population under study. However, a convenience sample serves is valuable for new areas of research studies by allowing researches to find out relationships among the variables under study (LaRose et al., 2006). While most studies examining student perceptions of the First Amendment or civic engagement rely on secondary data sources (most often the Knight Foundation First Amendment studies and U.S. Department of Education statistics), this study sought to collect data directly from high school students.

Findings

Do High School Students Support the First Amendment?

The respondents were fairly unified in the belief that the First Amendment was important, with 76% (n = 83) of respondents reporting they viewed the First Amendment as extremely important, 20% (n = 22) reporting the First Amendment was fairly important, 3% (n = 3) reporting that it was somewhat important, and 1% (n = 1) not viewing the First Amendment as important. The respondents believed the First Amendment was an important subject matter to cover in school, with 97% (n = 107) agreeing it was important for students to learn about the First Amendment.

The respondents reported that they had a good understanding of the First Amendment, with 18% (n = 20) responding that they knew their First Amendment rights very well, 45% (n = 50) reporting they knew their First Amendment rights somewhat well, and 24% (n = 10) reporting they were somewhat familiar with their First Amendment rights. While this was a self-reported measure, the respondents were able to name most of their First Amendment rights, with 73% (n = 80) naming freedom of speech, 68% (n = 64) naming freedom of religion, 55% (n = 60) naming freedom of the press, 47% (n = 52) naming freedom of assembly and 25% (n = 27) naming freedom to petition.²

Students also shared their support of the First Amendment through the open-ended survey questions, with qualitative comments including: “The First Amendment is the most important piece of our democracy,” “The First Amendment is our most important amendment and the fact that some people seem to want to limit or repeal it makes me worry about the society we could create,” and “It is interesting how we learn about these freedoms as they are rare and something that is always protected.” There were no negative comments regarding the First Amendment, or comments reflecting that the First Amendment goes too far or is unnecessary in the United States. These qualitative reflections of support for the First Amendment also serve as an indication of the way the students value their First Amendment rights.

From What Sources Do High School Students Learn About the First Amendment?

The most frequent source from which the students learned about the First Amendment were classes, with 96% (n = 106) of respondents selecting they had learned from this venue. Other popular categories to learn about the First Amendment from were online news, television news, parents, and peers. The categories to select when choosing sources of First Amendment knowledge were not mutually exclusive (Table 1).

Table 1.

Sources of First Amendment Knowledge.

Source of first amendment knowledge	Number of participants who learned from the source	Percentage of participants who learned from the source (%)
Classes	106	96
Online news	58	53
TV news	56	51
Parents	50	45
Peers	42	38
Books	38	35
TV shows	35	32
Movies	33	30
Twitter	25	23
Print news	25	23
Instagram	16	15
Snapchat	15	14
Radio news	14	13
Videogames	6	5
Facebook	4	4
Tumblr	4	4

The respondents reported that they would like more First Amendment education, with 66% (n = 73) saying they would like more First Amendment education in school and 46% (n = 51) reporting they would like more First Amendment education in the media. Recent events have made the majority of students more aware of their First Amendment rights, with 55% (n = 61) saying that recent events have increased First Amendment awareness. The most common events that increased awareness were protests in reaction to gun violence and climate change, and debates on college campuses when controversial speakers are invited. Other events mentioned were immigration protests and the 2016 presidential election.

The qualitative survey comments support what is theorized in SCT, the idea that being able to observe a real-world event, whether in-person or through media consumption, is likely to spur an interest in the First Amendment. SCT posits that a portion of someone’s knowledge is acquired from directly observing others, and that high school students will learn First Amendment behaviors by seeing others engage in their First Amendment rights through media coverage and discussions with classes, peers, and parents. These observations, in turn, are likely to inform their own behavior and make the students more supportive of the First Amendment. While classes were the most common source of First Amendment knowledge, integrating real-life First Amendment applications rather than only learning about the First Amendment from court cases, Constitutional history and other, more abstract sources is likely to increase First Amendment knowledge.

Do High School Students Consider All Sources of First Amendment Knowledge To Be Equally Valuable?

The sources that respondents learned about the First Amendment from were not all held equal, and the sources that participants felt gave them the most valuable First Amendment information were classes, parents, television news, online news, and peers. Classes were reported as the most valuable source of knowledge, with 88% (n = 97) of the respondents rating the knowledge received in the classroom as extremely or very valuable (Table 2).

Table 2.

Value of First Amendment Knowledge Sources.

Source	Number of participants who find the source extremely or very valuable	Percentage who find the source extremely or very valuable (%)
Classes	97	88
Parents	57	52
Online news	37	34
TV news	37	34
Peers	29	26
Books	26	24
Print news	18	16
Twitter	13	12
TV shows	11	10
Movies	10	9
Facebook	6	5
Instagram	4	4
Snapchat	4	4
Videogames	3	3
Tumblr	2	2

Classes

The respondents indicated that classes were an important source of First Amendment information. A Pearson correlation coefficient was computed to assess the relationship between the frequency of which students learned about the First Amendment from classes, and the importance of the First Amendment. There was a moderate, positive relationship between how often students learned about the First Amendment from classes, and the importance of First Amendment rights, r = .424, p = .001. In addition to being the most frequent source of First Amendment knowledge, classes are also considered a valuable way to learn about the First Amendment by the students.

The students also reflected this in the survey comments, noting, “My classes have taught me about the First Amendment in more depth, especially AP Government” and “The best way I’ve learned about the First Amendment is in classes that allow discussions or debates on examples of people attempting to exercise those rights and whether they were proper or not in doing so.” However, some participants also noted a lack of in-depth First Amendment education and a desire for more First Amendment knowledge, writing, “I learned in government class, but it wasn’t much, only the basic meaning” and “It needs to be shown and taught more.”

Parents

The respondents indicated that parents were an important source of First Amendment knowledge. A Pearson correlation coefficient was computed to assess the relationship between the frequency of which students learned about the First Amendment from parents, and the importance of the First Amendment. There was a moderate, positive relationship between students learning about the First Amendment from parents, and the importance of First Amendment rights, r = .450, p = .018. There was also a strong, positive relationship between the frequency with which students learned about the First Amendment from parents, and the value of the First Amendment knowledge they received from their parents, r = .532, p = .001.

While parents are not the most common source of First Amendment knowledge, it appears that students value the knowledge they learn from their parents, and being in a household that discusses the First Amendment makes it more likely that a student will value their First Amendment rights. The survey comments also reflected this philosophy, with participants sharing the importance of learning about the First Amendment from their parents with comments including, “If my family had not informed me about my First Amendment rights and how important they are, I would have been clueless about my rights up until 8th grade, or even high school” and “I do think all of the amendments should be taught to kids by parents and teachers more in depth and earlier.”

Peers

The respondents indicated that peers were an important source of First Amendment information. While there was not a statistically significant relationship between learning about the First Amendment from peers and the value placed on the First Amendment, the high ranking of value placed on peer learning indicates that they are also a valuable form of learning about the First Amendment. As SCT notes, adolescents can learn from, and be influenced by both the positive and negative actions of their peers. The current generation of high school students is sometimes described as an “activist generation,” with students participating in protests at large numbers (Najarro, 2020; Witt, 2019). Seeing peers involved in First Amendment activities likely raises both awareness and value of the First Amendment to other high school students. If a student sees a large number of your peers protesting to raise awareness for climate change or protest gun violence, the student may be inspired to protest as well, and learn more about the First Amendment rights that allow them to do so.

Media Sources

The respondents indicated that two media sources, online news and books, were important sources of First Amendment information. A Pearson correlation coefficient was computed to assess the relationship between the frequency of which students learned about the First Amendment from online news and the importance of the First Amendment. There was a moderate, positive relationship between reading online news that discussed the First Amendment and the value placed on the First Amendment, r = .231, p = .026. A Pearson correlation coefficient was computed to assess the relationship between the frequency of which students learned about the First Amendment from books and the importance of the First Amendment. There was a moderate, positive relationship between books that discussed the First Amendment and the value placed on the First Amendment, r = .226, p = .018. There was not a significant relationship between any other singular media source and the importance of the First Amendment. Overall, this study indicated that while students do learn about the First Amendment from a variety of media sources, the only media sources that influences their view of the First Amendment were online news and books.

The comments on the surveys also reflected the ways that students felt that the media influenced First Amendment knowledge, with participants commenting,

“The way the media portrays the First Amendment can leave citizens feeling confused about their rights,” and “When learning about the First Amendment, I don’t trust anything I read online. I always fact check, especially if I don’t know the source.”

When discussing the sources they learned about the First Amendment from, the student’s qualitative comments were fairly unified in wanting and appreciating accurate, in-depth First Amendment knowledge, regardless of if the information was coming from a class, parent, peer, or media source. The desire to learn more about the First Amendment and be able to trust the information they are receiving, also reflects a support for the First Amendment and desire to connect abstract First Amendment information to their daily lives. These findings are also in line with SCT, especially the concept of self-efficacy. When the high school students have not yet gained enough skills and experience to establish their own course of action, watching the behavior of others, both in-person and in the media, will help inform their behavior. As a population that values the First Amendment, it makes sense that the participants will desire detailed information about the First Amendment to advance their self-efficacy.

Discussion

This study indicates that learning about the First Amendment from classes, parents, peers, and certain types of media affects a student’s support of the First Amendment and that classes appear to be the most important source of First Amendment learning. The information the students learned from classes, parents, online news, and books also significantly affect the belief that the First Amendment is important. These results supported the predictions embodied in SCT that those beginning to form their own opinions or experiences are likely to learn from watching the behavior of others, including teachers and fellow students in class, parents, and media sources. The survey results also indicate that learning about real-world expressions of First Amendment rights also motivate students to want to learn more about the First Amendment and value the First Amendment to a greater degree. When a high school student watches peers lead a protest, or sees a group of high school athletes kneel during the National Anthem, this type of learning reiterates the value of the First Amendment in a way that a classroom lecture cannot always meet. In the surveys, a majority of the participants noted that recent events had increased their attention and respect for the First Amendment, a sentiment in line with SCT.

SCT posits that people learn by observing others perform a behavior, or by consuming mass communications showing the behavior. In this study, both types of learning are occurring. Students are learning about the First Amendment through class lectures, discussions with parents and peers, and media coverage of the First Amendment in action. When a high school student does not have a high level of self-efficacy regarding First Amendment rights, watching the behavior of others helps not only inform students of what their First Amendment rights are but also impacts the value students place on their First Amendment rights. Bringing these real-world applications of the First Amendment into the classroom, and discussions with parents and peers, is likely to increase interest in the First Amendment.

While the results of this study echo pervious findings regarding the importance of classes, parents, and peers for civic education, the specific focus on the First Amendment in this study make the findings meaningful. The study finds that students see the value in learning about the First Amendment and relate it to real-life events and would like more, and more specific First Amendment knowledge. Instead of merely learning the five freedoms associated with the First Amendment and viewing the First Amendment as a concrete portion of the Bill of Rights, parents and educators can provide more in-depth analysis on First Amendment protections, the many gray areas associated with First Amendment protections and the purpose and value of the First Amendment in society. This study recommends rooting these lessons in real-world events as much as possible, as seeing others be involved in protests was likely to create interest in the First Amendment among the survey participants, and help show the value of First Amendment rights. The study serves as encouragement for educators to continue teaching the First Amendment in classes, and encourage educators to promote First Amendment learning with parents, peers, and media sources. Learning more about the First Amendment can result in more civic-minded students who support a free press and other aspects of freedom of expression.

While classes were reported at the most frequent and most valuable source of First Amendment knowledge, not every high school student learns about the First Amendment at school. The 2018 Future of First Amendment survey found that fewer students report taking a high school class that discusses the First Amendment than in previous years (Knight Foundation, 2018). The Knight Foundation views this finding as problematic because past surveys have shown that taking a class that covers the First Amendment is associated with higher levels of First Amendment support. Students who have taken a high school class dealing with the First Amendment are more likely to personally think about their freedoms (35% compared to 27% of students who have not taken a class that covers the First Amendment). However, only 64% have taken a class dealing with the First Amendment, a decline from the 2016 findings. This study reiterates the findings of the Future of First Amendment survey, by showing that students who do learn about the First Amendment in class view the classroom as the most influential way to learn about the First Amendment.

This study also finds that students view parents, peers, and certain types of media as valuable sources of First Amendment information. While the Future of First Amendment survey does not ask about parental or peer involvement in First Amendment learning, it does ask questions about news consumption that can be tied to the findings of this study. The Future of First Amendment survey reports low levels of television news consumption (14% report viewing local news often and 12% report viewing cable news often). Other studies report similar low consumption of traditional news sources, with only 5% of teenagers reporting they regularly listen to the radio and 2% reporting they read a print newspaper (“Teens are Trouble for Radio,” 2019; Twenge et al., 2018). This lack of tradtional media consumption can be viewed as a reason that students are not learning about the First Amendment from traditional news sources. They are simply not consuming news from traditional venues.

This study also found that students are not learning about the First Amendment in any significant manner from social media sites. It remains unclear at this time if the First Amendment is not mentioned much on social media, if students are savvy enough to not trust First Amendment news found on social media, or if possible parental restrictions on social media influence this lack of a relationship. While this result is more surprising, due to the usage of social media (one in five teenagers reports spending at least 5 hours per day on social media sites), the Future of the First Amendment findings also shed light on this finding (Vaughn, 2019). The survey reports a decline in teenagers using social media to get news are also occurring, with 46% of respondents using social media to get news (a drop from 51% in 2016) and respondents also reporting declines in using social media to share or discuss news stories (Knight Foundation, 2018), indicating that teenagers may be viewing news of social media with less trust and more trepidation than in previous years. Overall, the findings reflect the need for First Amendment education inside and outside of the classroom.

Limitations

The specific sample used for this study likely affected the results. About a third of the respondents were students in AP Government classes, and likely knew more about the First Amendment than other high school students. The students were all in either A.P. Government or social studies classes, however the amount of time that had been spent discussing First Amendment issues was mixed. The students who received the paper survey in the spring had had several more months to cover civics and government topics, including the First Amendment. The online survey participants reported a wider variance in First Amendment knowledge and the amount of time and depth that the First Amendment had been covered in class. While there were no statistically significant differences in the responses between the online and in-person respondents, the in-person surveys did show slightly more support and understanding of First Amendment rights.

Due to the difficulties in recruiting high school students, the research was kept to a regional area. The region is primarily smaller towns and fairly conservative, which may have also influenced the value and perception of the First Amendment, the sources of First Amendment information considered most valuable, the kinds of conversations students have with their parents, and the kinds of media consumed by the students. Limiting the survey participants to a convenience sample of one geographic region means that the support of the First Amendment, and ways that students learn about the First Amendment found in this study may not reflect how other teenagers learn about the First Amendment across the country. Region of the country, city size, demographics, and political leanings all likely impact the way the First Amendment is covered at home and in classes, and sending the survey to a wider variety of schools and communities across the country may change the results. However, the racial equality protests occurring in summer 2020 are notable for not only happening in large, socially progressive cities, but also in small, more conservative towns across the United States (Robertson, 2020). This real-world application of First Amendment rights may indicate that the perception of the First Amendment, and sources students learn about it from, are not totally dependent on their geographic region. Continuing this area of study in other geographic locations to further study if the results reported by this sample of high school students remain indicative of the ways students learn about the First Amendment is a goal for this research stream. Adding in a focus group or interview component could also add depth to future studies in this area.

Despite the limitations associated with the sample, there is definite value attached to this research stream and examining the question of what sources high school students learn about the First Amendment from, and if any of these sources influence their views toward the First Amendment. At a time when students are exercising their First Amendment rights in large numbers, combined with the previous finding that civic identity and political attitudes are formed in adolescence, finding out more information regarding where students learn about the First Amendment, the depth of knowledge provided by those sources and the influence they have on students’ First Amendment views, may provide insights into this generation of high school students and how they form civic attitudes. Education surrounding the First Amendment may also be improved once more is learned about sources of First Amendment knowledge. Learning that classes are the single largest source of First Amendment learning and value may help encourage educators and administrators to keep or increase classes that discuss the First Amendment.

Footnotes

Appendix

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Notes

Author Biography

Amy Sindik (PhD University of Georgia) is an associate professor in the School of Broadcast & Cinematic Arts at Central Michigan University, where she teaches Media Law and Media Entrepreneurship courses. Her research interests include First Amendment law and media industry regulation.

References

Bandura

(1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Prentice-Hall.

Bandura

(1989). Social cognitive theory. In Vasta

(Ed.), Annals of child development. Vol.6. Six theories of child development (pp. 1–60). JAI Press.

Bandura

(1997). Self efficacy: The exercise of control. W. H. Freeman.

Bandura

(2001). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. Media Psychology, 3, 265–299.

Bandura

(2002). Social cognitive theory of mass communication. In Bryant

Oliver

M. B.

(Eds.), Media effects: Advances in theory and research (pp. 94–124). Routledge.

Bandura

(2011). The social and policy impact of social cognitive theory. In Mark

Donaldson

Campbell

(Eds.), Social psychology and evaluation (pp. 33–70). Guilford Press.

Barnard

(2019, September 16). City grants a permission slip for climate protests. The New York Times, A22.

Bennett

W. L.

Wells

Freelon

(2011). Communicating civic engagement: Contrasting models of citizenship in the youth web sphere. Journal of Communication, 61, 835–856.

Brechwald

W. A.

Prinstein

M. J.

(2011). Beyond homophily: A decade of advances in understanding peer influence processes. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21, 166–179.

10.

Brown v. Hartlage. (1982). 456 U.S. 45.

11.

Campbell

(2005). Voice in the classroom: How an open classroom environment facilitates adolescents’ civic development (CIRCLE Working Paper 28). Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement, University of Maryland.

12.

The Civic Mission of Schools. (2003). New York: Carnegie Corporation and the Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement. https://media.carnegie.org/filer_public/9d/0a/9d0af9f4-06af-4cc6-ae7d-71a2ae2b93d7/ccny_report_2003_civicmission.pdf

13.

Emerson

(1962). Toward a general theory of the First Amendment. Yale Law Journal, 72, 877–956.

14.

Feldman

Pasek

Romer

Jamieson

K. H.

(2007). Identifying best practices in civic education: Lessons from the student voices. American Journal of Education, 114(1), 75–100.

15.

Freedom Forum Institute. (2019). State of the first amendment survey. Freedom Forum Institute. https://www.freedomforuminstitute.org/wpcontent/uploads/2019/06/SOFAreport2019.pdf

16.

Gimpel

Lay

Schuknecht

(2003). Cultivating democracy: Civic environments and political socialization in America. Brookings Institution Press.

17.

Graber

D. A.

(1991). Media and politics. In Crotty

(Ed.), Political science: Vol. 3. Lookingto the future (pp. 91–125). Northwestern University Press.

18.

Haynes

Chaltain

Ferguson

Hudson Jr

Thomas

(2003). The First Amendment in schools: A guide from the First Amendment Center. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Devolopment.

19.

Inglehart

(1990). Political value orientations. In Jennings

M. K.

van Deth

J. W.

(Eds.), Continuities in political action: A longitudinal study of political orientations in three Western democracies (pp. 67–102). Walter de Gruyter.

20.

Jennings

M. K.

Niemi

R. G.

(1968). The transmissions of political values from parent to child. The American Political Science Review, 62(1), 169–184.

21.

Kahne

Middaugh

(2008). High quality civic education: What is it and who gets it? Social Education, 72(1), 34–39.

22.

Kassinger

Kenneth

(2018). Facing fake news: Five challenges and first amendment solutions. Social Education, 82(4), 235–237.

23.

Keeter

Zukin

Andolina

Jenkins

(2002). The civic and political health of the nation: A generational portrait. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED498892

24.

Knight Foundation. (2018, December 5). Future of the first amendment: 2018 survey of high school students and teachers. https://kf-site-production.s3.amazonaws.com/media_elements/files/000/000/271/original/Knight-FoFA-HighSchool-18-v2.pdf

25.

LaRose

Lai

Y. J.

Lange

Love

(2006). Sharing or piracy? An exploration of downloading behavior. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 11(1), 1–21.

26.

Lopez

Levine

Dautrich

Yalof

(2009). Schools, education policy, and the future of the First Amendment. Political Communication, 26, 84–101.

27.

McDevitt

Chaffee

(2002). From top-down to trickle-up influence: Revisiting assumptions about the family in political socialization. Political Communication, 19(3), 281–301.

28.

McDevitt

Ostrowski

(2009). The adolescent unbound: Unintentional influence of curricula on ideological conflict seeking. Political Communication, 26(1), 11–29.

29.

McLeod

J. M.

Chaffee

S. H.

(1972). The construction of social reality. In Tedeschi

(Ed.), The social influence processes (pp. 50–59). Aldine-Atherton.

30.

Mensing

. (2017). The Curious case of U.S. Journalism education: Shrinking newsrooms, expanding classrooms. In Goodman

Steyn

(Eds.), Global journalism education in the 21st century: Challenges & innovations (pp. 219–239). Knight Center for Journalism in the Americas.

31.

Najarro

(2020, February 12). Modern tools boost rise of student activism in wake of Parkland massacre. Tampa Bay Times. https://www.tampabay.com/news/tampa/2020/02/12/two-years-after-the-parkland-shooting-floridas-young-activists-continue-to-organize/

32.

Niemi

R. G.

Junn

(1998). Civic education: What makes students learn. Yale University Press.

33.

Post

(2017). The classic First Amendment tradition under stress: Freedom of speech and the university (Yale Law School, Public Law Research Paper No. 619). https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3044434

34.

Renkl

(2020, June 15). These kids are done waiting for change. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/15/opinion/nashville-teens-protests.html

35.

Robertson

(2020, July 15). What Black Lives Matter has revealed about small-town America. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/15/us/black-lives-matter-protests-small-towns.html

36.

Shah

D. V.

Cho

Nah

Gotlieb

M. R.

Hwang

Lee

N.-J.

Scholl

R. M.

McLeod

D. M.

(2007). Campaign ads, online messaging, and participation: Extending the communication mediation model. Journal of Communication, 57, 676–703.

37.

Sniderman

P. M.

(1975). Personality and democratic politics. University of California Press.

38.

Sotirovic

McLeod

(2001). Values, communication behavior, and political participation. Political Communication, 18, 273–300.

39.

Teens are trouble for radio. (2019, February 14). Radio Ink. https://radioink.com/2019/02/14/teens-are-trouble-for-radio/

40.

Torney-Purta

(2002). The school’s role in developing civic engagement: A study of adolescents in twenty-eight countries. Applied Developmental Science, 6(4), 203–212.

41.

Twenge

Martin

Spitzberg

(2018). Trends in U.S. adolescents’ media use, 1976-2016: The rise of digital media, the decline of TV, and the (near) demise of print. Psychology of Popular Media Culture, 8(4), 329–345.

42.

Van Hoorn

van Dijk

Meuwese

Rieffe

Crone

E. A

. (2016). Peer influence on prosocial behavior in adolescence. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 26(1), 90–100.

43.

Vaughn

(2019, October 22). More LOLs, fewer Zzzs: Teens may be losing sleep over social media. NPR. https://www.npr.org/sections/healthshots/2019/10/22/772415313/more-lols-fewer-zzzs-teens-may-be-losing-sleep-over-social-media

44.

Veenstra

Dijkstra

Steglich

Van Zalk

(2013). Network-behavior dynamics. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 23, 399–412.

45.

Wentzel

K. R.

(2017). Peer relationships, motivation, and academic performance at school. In Elliot

Dweck

Yeager

(Eds.), Handbook of competence and motivation: Theory and application (pp. 586–603). The Guilford Press.

46.

Witt

(2019, February 13). From Parkland to Sunrise: A year of extraordinary youth activism. The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/from-parkland-to-sunrise-a-year-of-extraordinary-youth-activism

47.

Wyatt

R. O.

Kim

Katz

(2000). How feeling free to talk affects ordinary political conversation, purposeful argumentation, and civic participation. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 77, 99–114.

48.

Yee

Blinder

. (2018, March 14). National school walkout: Thousands protest against gun violence across the U.S. The New York Times, A1.

49.

Zaveri

(2020, June 23). “I need people to hear my voice”: Teens protest racism. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2020/06/23/us/teens-protest-black-lives-matter.html