This study examined the correlations between everyday (nonviolent) sexism and the development of trauma symptoms in women. A total of 382 women completed a subjective measurement of the experience of sexism, a checklist of gender-based stressors (including acts of violence), a measurement of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and a demographic questionnaire. Results indicated a moderately strong relationship between the experience of everyday sexism and PTSD. A stepwise multiple regression revealed that when all variables (test scores, subscale scores, and demographic characteristics) were entered, the most predictive variable for trauma was recent sexist degradation, accounting for 20% of the variance in PTSD scores.
Adams, P. (1990). Prejudice and exclusion as social traumata. In J. D. Noshpitz & R. D. Coddington (Eds.), Stressors and the adjustment disorders (pp. 362-391). New York: John Wiley.
2.
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
3.
Baum, A., O’Keeffe, M., & Davidson, L. (1990). Acute stressors and chronic response: The case of traumatic stress. Journal of Applied Psychology, 20, 1643-1654.
4.
Benokraitis, N. V. (1997). Sex discrimination in the 21st century. In N. V. Benokraitis (Ed.), Subtle sexism: Current practices and prospects for change (pp. 5-33). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
5.
Benokraitis, N. V., & Feagin, J. R. (1995). Modern sexism: Blatant, subtle, and covert discrimination. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
6.
Bloom, S. (1997). Creating sanctuary. New York: Routledge.
7.
Brady, K. T. (1997). Posttraumatic stress disorder and comorbidity: Recognizing the many faces of PTSD. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 58(Suppl. 9), 12-15.
Brown, L. (1992). A feminist critique of the personality disorders. In L. Brown & M. Ballou (Eds.), Personality and psychopathology: Feminist appraisals (pp. 206-228). New York: Guilford.
10.
de Zulueta, F. (1993). From pain to violence: The traumatic roots of destructiveness. Northvale, NJ: Aronson.
11.
Dohrenwend, B. S., Krasnoff, L., Askenasy, A. R., & Dohrenwend, B. P. (1978). Exemplification of a method for scaling life events: The PERI Life Events Scale. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 19, 205-229.
12.
Frazier, P. (1998, November). Prevalence of PTSD following non-Criterion A events. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, Washington, DC.
13.
Friedman, M. (1997). Posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(Suppl. 9), 33-36.
14.
Gutek, B., & Koss, M. P. (1993). Changed women and changed organizations: Consequences of and coping with sexual harassment. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 42, 28-48.
15.
Harvey, M. R., & Herman, J. L. (1992). The trauma of sexual victimization: Feminist contributions to theory, research, and practice. PTSD Research Quarterly, 3, 1-13.
16.
Haslett, B., & Lipman, S. (1997). Micro-inequities: Up close and personal. In N. V. Benokraitis (Ed.), Subtle sexism: Current practices and prospects for change (pp. 34-53). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
17.
Herman, J. L. (1992). Trauma and recovery. New York: Basic Books.
18.
Jagger, A. M. (1983). Feminist politics and human nature. Totowa, NJ: Rowman & Allanheld.
19.
Kanner, A. D., Coyne, J. C., Schaffer, C., & Lazarus, R. S. (1981). Comparison of two modes of stress measurement: Daily hassles and uplifts vs. major life events. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4, 1-39.
20.
Kasl, S. V. (1990). Some considerations in the study of traumatic stress. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 1655-1665.
21.
Keane, T. M., & Wolfe, J. (1990). Comorbidity in post-traumatic stress disorder: An analysis of community and clinical studies. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 1776-1788.
22.
Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Zhao, S., Nelson, C., Hughes, M., Eshleman, S., et al. (1994). Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 8-19.
23.
Kessler, R. C., Sonnega, A., Bromet, E., Hughes, M., & Nelson, C. (1995). Posttraumatic stress disorder in the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 1048-1060.
24.
Kimerling, R. (Speaker). (1999). Gender issues in post-traumatic stress disorder (Cassette Recording No. 99ISTSS-146). Santa Clarita, CA: Professional Programs, Inc.
25.
Kirkwood, C. (1993). Leaving abusive partners. London: Sage.
26.
Klonoff, E. A., & Landrine, H. (1995). The Schedule of Sexist Events: A measure of lifetime and recent sexist discrimination in women’s lives. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19, 439-472.
27.
Koss, M. P., Goodman, L. A., Browne, A., Fitzgerald, L. F., Keita, G. P., & Russo, N. F. (1994). Male violence against women at home, at work, and in the community. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
28.
Kravetz, D. (1986). Women and mental health. In N. van den Bergh & L. Cooper (Eds.), Feminist visions of social work (pp. 101-127). Silver Springs, MD: NASW.
29.
Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E. A. (1997). Discrimination against women: Prevalences, consequences, remedies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
30.
Lepore, S. J., Miles, H. J., & Levy, J. S. (1997). Relation of chronic and episodic stressors to psychological distress, reactivity, and health problems. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 4, 39-59.
31.
Long Island Regional Planning Board. (1998) Long Island almanac. Hempstead, NY: Author.
32.
Murburg, C. (1999). Criterion A: Can a wider range of traumas cause PTSD? (Cassette Recording No. 99ISTSS-195). Santa Clarita, CA: Professional Programs, Inc.
33.
Pierce, C. M. (1995). Stress analogs of racism and sexism: Terrorism, torture and disaster. In C. Willie, P. P. Rieker, B. Kramer, & B. Brown (Eds.), Mental health, racism, and sexism (pp. 277-296). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
34.
Resnick, H. S., Kilpatrick, D. G., Dansky, B. S., Saunders, B. E., & Best, C. L. (1993). Prevalence of civilian trauma and posttraumatic stress disorder in a representative national sample of women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 61, 984-991.
35.
Root, M. (1992). Reconstructing the impact of trauma on personality. In L. Brown & M. Ballou (Eds.), Personality and psychopathology: Feminist appraisals (pp. 229-265). New York: Guilford.
36.
Rowe, M. (1990). Barriers to equality: The power of subtle discrimination to maintain unequal opportunity. Employee Responsibilities and Rights Journal, 3, 153-163.
37.
Russo, N. F. (1995). Women’s mental health: Research agenda for the twenty-first century. In C. Willie, P. P. Rieker, B. Kramer, & B. Brown (Eds.), Mental health, racism, and sexism (pp. 373-396). Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
38.
Scott, M., & Stradling, S. (1994). PTSD without the trauma. British Journal of Psychiatry, 33, 71-74.
39.
Solomon, S. D., & Canino, G. (1990). Appropriateness of DSM III-R criteria for PTSD. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 31, 227-237.
40.
Southwick, S., Yehuda, R., & Giller, E. (1993). Personality disorders in treatment-seeking combat veterans with PTSD. American Journal of Psychiatry, 150, 1020-1023.
41.
Swim, J. K., Hyers, L. L., Cohen, L. L., & Ferguson, M. J. (2001). Everyday sexism: Evidence for its incidence, nature, and psychological impact from three daily diary studies. Journal of Social Issues, 57(1), 31-53.
42.
Vivero, V., & Jenkins, S. (1999, November). Healing discrimination trauma: From silent denial to awareness. Poster presented at the annual meeting of the International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies, Miami, FL.
43.
Wolfe, J., & Kimerling, R. (1997). Gender issues in the assessment of posttraumatic stress disorder. In J. P. Wilson & T. M. Keane (Eds.), Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD (pp. 192-238). New York: Guilford.
44.
Young-Bruehl, E. (1996). The anatomy of prejudices. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
