Abstract
The objective of this study was to report the frequency of perpetration and victimization of unwanted sexual activities (threatened to end relationship or other pressures to engage in sexual activities, threatened or actual physical force, and facilitated by drugs or alcohol) in a large, statewide sample of high school males and females. Among 18,030 students, 18.5% reported victimization and 8.0% perpetration in the past year. Although females were more likely to report unwanted sexual activities due to feeling pressured, there were no significant sex differences among those reporting physical force or unwanted sexual activities due to alcohol or drug use.
Sexual violence among adolescents is increasingly being recognized as a public health problem (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2004). Underscoring the importance of this research, sexual violence has significant consequences for adolescents. For example, research shows that female adolescents with a history of forced sex are more likely to have had multiple sexual partners in the 3 months prior to interview and are less likely to have used a condom at last sexual encounter, implying a continuing effect on subsequent sexual behaviors (Bramsen, Lasgaard, Elklit, & Koss, 2011; Howard, Wang, & Yan, 2007). Increased alcohol use, depression, and suicide ideation and attempts have been associated with having experienced some form of sexual violence among adolescents (Asgeirsdottir, Sigfusdottir, Gudjonsson, & Sigurdsson, 2011; Buzi et al., 2003; Hanson, 2010; Olshen, McVeigh, Wunsch-Hitzig, & Rickert, 2007; Stappenbeck & Fromme, 2010).
Unwanted sexual activities also contribute to unintended pregnancies, due to the decreased likelihood of using contraception, particularly condoms, effectively (Coggins & Bullock, 2003; Hathaway, Willis, Zimmer, & Silverman, 2005; Teitelman, Tennille, Bohinski, Jemmott, & Jemmott, 2011). Condom and contraceptive use at the last sexual encounter is lower among adolescent females who report either dating violence or forced sexual intercourse (Hanson, 2010). Adolescent males who experience forced sexual contact are also more likely to have impregnated a female (Pierre, Shrier, Emans, & DuRant, 1998), highlighting the importance of understanding the prevalence of unwanted sexual activities in both male and female adolescent populations.
One critical issue in understanding and estimating the magnitude of sexual violence among adolescents is the multiple definitions and various terms used to describe these behaviors. Studies refer to sexual assaults, sexual abuse, sexual violence, sexual coercion, or sexual aggression, depending on the types of behaviors, amount of force, and an inability to consent to sexual activity. These terms incorporate different acts in their conceptualization, including both attempted, threatened, and completed sexual acts, such as ever having been pressured or forced into sexual touching; masturbation; oral, anal, or vaginal intercourse against the individual’s will; in addition to various levels of physical intimidation (Anderson, Reis, & Stephens, 1997; DeGue & DiLillo, 2005; Fisher, Cullen, & Turner, 2000; Fisher, Daigle, & Cullen, 2010; Lacasse & Mendelson, 2007; Lodico, Gruber, & DiClemente, 1996; Seto et al., 2010; Tjaden & Thoennes, 2000). The National Intimate Partner and Sexual Violence Survey (NISVS), the most recently conducted national survey of sexual violence victimization of women and men in the United States, included rape, being made to penetrate someone else, sexual coercion, unwanted sexual contact, and non-contact unwanted sexual experiences (Black et al., 2011).
Rape was further categorized as forced penetration, attempted forced penetration, and alcohol or drug facilitated penetration on NISVS (Black et al., 2011). Sexual coercion has been defined as the use of force, authority, or alcohol or drugs to engage in some form of sexual activity (Morrison, McLeod, Morrison, & Anderson, 1997), whereas others define sexual aggression as unwanted sexual advances and forced intercourse (Stappenbeck & Fromme, 2010). In one consensus document issued by the CDC with specific definitions of sexual violence, the term sexual violence was defined to include a variety of behaviors including sexual abuse, sexual assault, and any other sexual violations such as sexual harassment and voyeurism (Corbett & Gentry, 1993). Furthermore, Basile et al. (2006) also highlighted the difference between an inability to consent because of age, illness, disability, being asleep, or the influence of alcohol or other drugs and an inability to refuse due to threat or use of physical violence, real or perceived coercion, intimidation or pressure, or misuse of authority.
Given the variation in definitions, a wide range of measures have been used to estimate the prevalence of multiple forms of unwanted sexual activities, with the prevalence ranging from 1% to 52%. Using a definition of sexual aggression that included verbal coercion, use of drugs or alcohol by the victim, or the threat or use of physical force to obtain unwanted sexual contact with any part of the body, a prospective study of adolescents yielded a 4-year prevalence rate of sexual aggression of 46%, with approximately an equal number of adolescents reporting an incident each year (Year 1 = 16.2%; Year 2 = 20.1%; Year 3 = 16.6%; Year 4 = 18.3%). Another study that assessed being pressured to do something sexual against your will and attempted or completed rapes noted 22% of students had been victimized and 6% reported having perpetrated sexual violence (Bennett & Fineran, 1998).
In a study of high school students, 52.5% of females and 26.3% of males reported ever experiencing any form of sexual assault; 50.7% of females and 25.9% of males reported unwanted kissing, hugging, or touching; 5.5% of females and 4.1% of males reported unwanted oral sex; 11.8% of females and 3.1% of males reported a completed rape; and 11.2% of females and 2.6% of males reported something else sexual (Young, Grey, & Boyd, 2009). A nationally representative study of adolescent females aged 12 to 17 identified 11.8% who had experienced any sexual assault; 2.1% of all females reported a sexual assault facilitated by drugs or alcohol. One study of students in an alternative high school found that 18.2% of female students and 6.7% of male students reported that they had ever been forced to have sex against their will (Buzi et al., 2003).
Data from the Youth Risk Behavior Survey (YRBS), a nationally representative survey of adolescents enrolled in Grades 9 to 12 conducted by the CDC, have frequently been used to examine sexual violence among adolescents, both males and females (Basile et al., 2006; Behnken, Le, Temple, & Berenson, 2010; Howard & Wang, 2005; Howard et al., 2007). Since 1999, the biennially conducted national YRBS has included one yes/no item asking whether the respondent had ever been physically forced to have sexual intercourse when he or she did not want to. In 2009, 10.5% of female and 4.5% of male high school students in the United States reported ever having been physically forced to have sexual intercourse when they did not want to (Eaton et al., 2010). In 2011, these numbers remained virtually unchanged with 11.8% of female and 4.5% of male high school students reporting forced sexual intercourse (Eaton et al., 2012). Results of the above studies suggested that various forms of unwanted sexual activities were quite prevalent among all adolescents, and victimization rates appeared higher among females.
Although a significant number of studies have examined victimization of female adolescents, fewer large studies have examined the experiences of male victims. In addition, perpetration among adolescents, both male and female, remained understudied (Abbey, McAuslan, & Ross, 1998; Seto et al., 2010). One study of college students reporting on their freshman year experience found that 5.6% of both males and females reported perpetrating either unwanted sexual advances or forced sexual intercourse (Stappenbeck & Fromme, 2010).
Research on the correlates of unwanted sexual activities was primarily cross-sectional studies. Demographic correlates of unwanted sexual activities that have been previously identified included being female, non-intact family structure, self-identifying as a sexual minority, lower income, immigrant status, and dating history (Friedman et al., 2011; Testa, Hoffman, & Livingston, 2011).
This large cross-sectional study of 18,030 high school students added to the existing literature by providing population-based estimates of both victimization and perpetration of unwanted sexual activities by specific tactic and sex, as well as an assessment of the overlap between reporting both victimization and perpetration. We also examined demographic correlates of reporting either victimization or perpetration of unwanted sexual activities. Throughout this study, we referred to the behaviors we were describing as unwanted sexual activities, which encompassed the range of behaviors from verbal pressure to physically forced intercourse.
Method
Participants
An inclusive sample of all high school students (freshmen-seniors) present and attending 1 of 26 participating high schools were asked to complete a self-administered survey. The survey was a 95-item paper-and-pencil anonymous questionnaire that took approximately 25 to 40 min to complete. Study personnel traveled to the high schools and administered surveys in one of two ways during school hours: (a) a class administration setting in the school during a selected class (e.g., English classes for the whole day), or (b) a school group administration during which, in one class period, the whole school was surveyed. The survey was conducted using the model familiar to schools in the YRBS (CDC, 2009). All surveys were administered between January and May 2010. At the end of the survey booklet, resources were included; websites and toll-free numbers for national agencies were available at all times to address domestic violence, sexual assaults, depression, or suicide ideation should this information be helpful for students. These resources were also provided on pencils the students used to complete the survey and were able to keep. The study protocol was approved by the University of Kentucky Institutional Review Board (#09-0680-F1V).
Consent
All parents and guardians of enrolled students were mailed a parental information letter describing the study purpose and information on the study at least 2 weeks prior to surveying. Students with parents and guardians who responded via email or phone that they did not wish their child to participate were not approached to participate.
Measures
Unwanted sexual activities victimization or perpetration
The questions asked about unwanted sexual activities were prefaced with the following introduction: “The next questions are about sexual activities. Some of the questions might make you uncomfortable. Remember that this survey is anonymous. Your name will not be linked to your answers. You may also skip questions that make you uncomfortable.” Three items were used to measure victimization of unwanted sexual activities: (a) had sexual activities although you did not really want to because either they threatened to end your friendship or romantic relationship if you did not or you felt pressured by the other person’s constant arguments or begging; (b) had sexual activities when you did not want to because the other person threatened to use or used physical force (such as twisting your arm, holding you down) if you did not agree; and (c) had sexual activities when you did not want to because you were drunk or on drugs. Response options for all items ranged from never; 1 to 2 times; 3 to 5 times; 6 or more times; and yes, but not in the past 12 months. First, we created indicator variables for each item to represent the proportion reporting each tactic occurring 1 or more times in the past 12 months (all dichotomous yes/no variables). We then created a summary variable to measure whether a student reported any unwanted sexual activities victimization in the past 12 months (yes/no).
The same three items were rephrased to determine the student’s perpetration of unwanted sexual activities: “In the last 12 months, how many times have YOU . . .” The ordinal response options for these items were similar to the victimization questions, with one additional option: never; 1 to 2 times; 3 to 5 times; 6 to 9 times; 10 or more times; and yes, but not in the past 12 months. We again created indicator variables for those who reported they had committed each tactic 1 or more times, and a separate indicator for having perpetrated any unwanted sexual activities in the past 12 months (all dichotomous yes/no variables).
Finally, we measured the overlap between perpetration and victimization of unwanted sexual activities for each student as (a) both perpetration of and victimization by unwanted sexual activities, (b) perpetration of unwanted sexual activities alone, (c) victimization by unwanted sexual activities alone, and (d) the comparison group of no perpetration of or victimization by unwanted sexual activities.
Demographics and other risk factors
Several demographic variables were included in the survey. Sex (male or female) and grade in school (9th-12th) were analyzed as asked. We used receipt of free/reduced meals as a proxy for socioeconomic status, which was ascertained with one yes/no question, “Do you receive a free or reduced price meal through your high school?” Race was asked using the question, “How would you describe yourself?” The response options were American Indian or Alaska Native, Asian, Black or African American, Hispanic or Latino/Latina, White, and Other. Students were allowed to select only one option, and we further recoded this variable to a dichotomous indicator of White compared with all other race categories.
Sexual attraction was assessed with the following item: “People are different in their sexual attraction to other people. Which best describes your feelings?” The response options were as follows: (a) only attracted to females, (b) mostly attracted to females, (c) equally attracted to females and males, (d) mostly attracted to males, (e) only attracted to males, and (f) not sure. Students who reported that they were male and were only attracted to females and those who reported that they were female and were only attracted to males were coded as being exclusively attracted to the opposite sex. All others, including those who reported they were not sure, were coded as not exclusively attracted to the opposite sex. We assessed current dating relationship status with this question: During the past 12 months, have you been in a relationship with a boyfriend or girlfriend? By a relationship, we mean either having a partner for planned events like a school dance or going to the movies, having a sex partner, or hanging out in a group with a boyfriend or girlfriend.
Response options were (a) no, never been in a relationship; (b) no, not in the past 12 months; (c) not now, but have been in the past 12 months; (d) yes, in one relationship now; and (e) yes, in multiple relationships. From this, we created a dichotomous indicator of whether the student had been in a relationship in the past year. Finally, we measured the construct of having witnessed parent partner violence with the following item: “In your family, how often did you see or hear one of your parents or guardians being hit, slapped, punched, shoved, kicked, or otherwise physically hurt by their spouse or partner?” Response options ranged from never to more than 10 times, but were dichotomized as no or yes.
Statistical Analysis
Demographic variables were described for the students overall and rates of unwanted sexual activities (victimization and perpetration) were provided for each demographic factor overall and by gender (Tables 1 and 2). Frequencies of the number of times for each unwanted sexual activity (victimization and perpetration) were also described for those who indicated an affirmative response (Figures 1 and 2). Comparisons were made using generalized estimating equations, which allow for the relaxation of independence conditions (students attending the same school) and for the control of potential confounding variables. Potential confounding variables include grade in school, receiving a free or reduced-price meal, race, sexual attraction, and a history of parental or guardian partner violence. Therefore, these models accounted for confounders and for the study design by incorporating the sampled high school (n = 26) in generalized estimating equations (link=log, distribution=binomial, exchangeable working correlation matrix). Multivariable logistic regression (PROC LOGISTIC, link=glogit) was used to determine sex differences in the overlap between victimization and perpetration, by analyzing the four-category variable for each tactic, and overall: perpetration alone, victimization alone, and both perpetration and victimization compared with no unwanted sexual victimization or perpetration, adjusting for other demographic factors. All analyses were conducted using SAS, Version 9.3.
Demographic Profile of High School Students Completing Baseline Survey, by Victimization of Unwanted Sexual Activities.
Demographic Profile of High School Students Completing Baseline Survey, by Perpetration of Unwanted Sexual Activities.
Frequency of victimization in the past 12 months, by tactic and sex.
Frequency of perpetration in the past 12 months, by tactic and sex.
Results
Student Response Rates
Of the 20,806 students enrolled in schools on the scheduled dates of surveying who completed a Scantron® form (>80% of all students in the 26 schools), 1,454 (7.0%) were student refusals and 82 (0.4%) were parental refusals. An additional 232 (1.1%) students started the survey but completed less than 30 of the 95 items (partial refusals), yielding an overall refusal rate of 8.5%. Of the remaining students, 369 (1.8%) did not answer one of the demographic questions and 639 (3.1%) did not complete all six items measuring victimization and perpetration of unwanted sexual activities, resulting in 18,030 students (86.6%) for the current analysis. There were no significant demographic differences between those who agreed and completed the survey and those who did not with one exception: Males were twice as likely as females to refuse to complete the survey, based on school demographic information.
Sample demographics
Of the 18,030 students included in the analysis for the present study, 53.9% were female and 46.1% were male. Freshmen were slightly overrepresented in the sample (30.5%), whereas seniors were slightly underrepresented (16.2%); sophomores (27.6%) and juniors (25.7%) together represented half the students (Table 1). Consistent with state-level student demographics, the majority of students were White (82.8%). Less than half of the students reported receiving free or reduced-price lunches (43.4%). A majority of students identified as exclusively heterosexual (86.2%) and indicated that they had been in a relationship in the past year (79.8%). Approximately one fourth of the students (25.5%) had witnessed partner violence between their parents.
Demographic correlates of victimization and perpetration
We explored the demographic correlates of any victimization by unwanted sexual activities separately for males and females (Table 1). Almost one quarter (22.6%) of females and 13.6% of males reported at least one occurrence of experiencing an unwanted sexual activity. The following factors were associated with victimization among all students: receiving a free or reduced-price meal, being in a relationship in the past 12 months, self-identifying as not exclusively heterosexual, and having witnessed parental partner violence. Among females, rates of unwanted sex victimization in the past year increased with age: 19.8% of freshman compared with 25.1% of juniors and 25.5% of seniors. Among males, no such association with grade was observed. Although race was associated with victimization among both males and females, the direction of the association differed with non-White males compared with White males (19.9% vs. 12.3%) reporting more victimization, whereas when comparing White females with non-White females (23.2% vs. 19.6%), White females were more likely to report victimization.
Fewer students, 5.8% of females and 10.6% of males, self-reported that they had perpetrated one of the unwanted sexual activities (Table 2). The demographic correlates of any perpetration were similar to those identified for victimization. Students who were not White, had been in a relationship in the past 12 months, self-identified as not exclusively heterosexual, and had witnessed parental partner violence all had higher perpetration rates among males and females. Students who were in a higher grade or received a free or reduced-price meal were significantly associated with unwanted sexual activities perpetration among females.
Specific victimization and perpetration tactics
The most commonly reported form of unwanted sexual activity victimization for females (17.3%) was having sexual activities when they really did not want to due to threatening to end the relationship or pressure from the other person’s arguments (Table 3). A lower percentage of males in the study (8.3%) reported this form of victimization, a significant difference after adjusting for race, grade in school, receiving a free meal, sexual attraction, witnessing parental partner violence, and current relationship status (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] = 2.04). No statistical differences by sex in the prevalence of unwanted sexual activities due to threatened or actual physical force, or because of being under the influence of alcohol or drugs, were observed.
Prevalence of Unwanted Sexual Activities by Specific Tactic and Directionality in the Past 12 Months by Sex.
Note. aOR = adjusted odds ratio.
Adjusted odds ratio estimated comparing females versus males controlling for race, grade in school, receiving a free meal, sexual attraction, parental partner violence, and relationship status.
Finally, in exploring the number of times adolescents reported experiencing the three behaviors (Figure 1), for all three forms of unwanted sexual activity victimization, most adolescents reported that the behavior happened 1 or 2 times.
The most commonly reported perpetration tactic was having had unwanted sexual activities with another high school student when he or she was under the influence of alcohol or drugs; this was true for both males (8.1%) and females (4.1%). Overall, females were significantly less likely to report having perpetrated any of the three specific behaviors. The number of times perpetration of each behavior was reported was similar to the pattern observed for victimization (Figure 2). However, among females who reported that they had pressured their partner with threats to end the relationship or begging, the responses of either 1 or 2 times or 3 to 5 times were evenly endorsed.
Co-occurrence of victimization and perpetration
The final objective of this study was to explore the co-occurrence of victimization and perpetration, noting that the person who victimized the respondent may not be the same person the respondent victimized, but that both occurred in the past 12 months (Table 4). For the specific behaviors and any unwanted sexual activity overall, females were much more likely to report that they had been victimized, but had not perpetrated against another person. Compared with students who reported neither being victimized nor having perpetrated unwanted sexual activities, females were more likely to report victimization only for having been pressured (aOR = 2.65), threatened, or having actual physical force used (aOR = 1.68), while under the influence of alcohol or drugs (aOR = 1.43), and any unwanted sexual activities overall (aOR = 2.61). Conversely, females were much less likely to report that they had either perpetrated against another person but not been victimized (aOR ranged from 0.29 to 0.38), or had both perpetrated and been victimized (aOR ranged from 0.31 to 0.56).
Both Perpetration and Victimization of Unwanted Sexual Activity, Perpetration Alone, Victimization Alone, No Unwanted Sexual Activities, by Tactic and Sex.
Note. aOR = adjusted odds ratio.
Adjusted odds ratio estimated comparing females versus males controlling for race, grade in school, receiving a free meal, sexual attraction, parental partner violence, and relationship status.
Discussion
Overall, approximately 1 in 4 female and 1 in 10 male high school students reported at least one incident of unwanted sexual activity in the past 12 months. In this study, the prevalence of having been forced to have sexual intercourse was higher among female than male students. Interestingly, the YRBS also noted the same differential association between sex and race that we found in the current study: Whereas reports of forced sexual intercourse were slightly higher among White female students (12.0%) compared with either Black female (11.0%) or Hispanic female (11.2%) students, Black male (6.1%) and Hispanic male (5.4%) students were more likely than White male (3.2%) students to report forced sexual intercourse (Eaton et al., 2012).
We observed that both male and female adolescents who had been in a dating relationship in the past 12 months were more likely to report both victimization and perpetration. In part, this could be explained by the potential opportunities for unwanted sexual activities, particularly the more common form of being pressured by threats to end the relationship or constant begging. Other studies have focused on unwanted sexual activities that occurred in the context of a dating relationship, primarily incorporating measures of forced sex into the definition of dating violence (Wolitzky-Taylor et al., 2008), so it is important to note that approximately 6% of students who were not in a relationship in the past year still reported some form of unwanted sexual activities.
The role that sexual attraction may play in victimization and perpetration of unwanted sexual activities has gained recent attention (Bontempo & D’Augelli, 2002; D’Augelli, Pilkington, & Hershberger, 2002; Friedman et al., 2011; Saewyc, 2011; Saewyc et al., 2006). In the current study, students who self-identified as not exclusively heterosexual were more likely to report being both victims and perpetrators of unwanted sexual activities. Further analysis also indicates that these students may report more frequent victimization: Students self-identifying as not exclusively heterosexual represent approximately one fifth of victims who report that the behavior happened 1 or 2 times, but one third of those who report that it happened 6 or more times. In addition to knowing who the perpetrator and victim were, knowing their sex and the context for the unwanted sexual activity may be critical within this population. Ultimately, this study provides some much-needed details about the experiences of both victimization and perpetration of high school students who self-identify as sexual minorities.
The findings in this study are somewhat consistent with previous literature on sexual violence victimization among high school students. As described previously, studies have used a variety of definitions and measurement tools to study unwanted sexual activities among adolescents, leading to a wide range in the estimates. CDC’s Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBS) found in 2011 that 11.8% of females and 4.5% of males had ever been physically forced to have sexual intercourse (Lipson & American Association of University Women Educational Foundation, 2001). In contrast with findings from the population-based YRBS, which includes only one item on lifetime sexual violence victimization, this anonymous survey included three questions. The prevalence of unwanted sexual activities victimization in the current study is approximately twice that identified in other studies using one item. To further compare our data with the YRBS data, we examined the item asking about having experienced unwanted sexual activities due to threatened or actual physical force, incorporating the response option “yes, but not in the past 12 months.” Using this measure, 5.9% of females and 4.1% of males in our study reported a lifetime history of forced sexual activities, and after adjusting for other correlates, the difference is only slightly greater for females, aOR = 1.20, χ2(1) = 4.56, p = .03.
Using only one item that focuses on physically forced sexual intercourse may not adequately capture the different forms of coercive and unwanted sexual experiences of high school students. One issue with understanding how adolescents respond to limited questions on victimization is related to those who experienced a type of victimization but not necessarily the specific form of violence that is asked about in the survey questions. For example, the prevalence of forced sex was lower in the current study than in the YRBS data. This could be due to the sample of schools in the current study compared with those in the YRBS. However, an alternative explanation is that by asking more questions about sexual violence, adolescents are allowed more opportunity to indicate the specific type of victimization they experienced. The difference also could be due to adolescents who may not identify the verbal coercion they experienced or unwanted sexual activities that occurred when they were under the influence of drugs or alcohol as forced sexual intercourse, but will indicate that when asked the more behaviorally specific questions. This is supported by a small study of adolescent males, 63% of whom defined being forced to do something sexual as having sex when they did not want to (Anderson et al., 1997). In addition, some adolescents who identify an experience as unwanted sexual activity may indicate that it was forced sexual intercourse even if no physical force was used (to acknowledge that something bad did in fact happen to them). The measurement of unwanted sexual experiences using self-report survey data will always be challenged by the limited number of items we are logistically able to include, and further, fully understanding what is ultimately leading to these different estimates.
In this study, we assessed both victimization and perpetration among male and female high school students, allowing us to explore their co-occurrence by sex. Of note, among students who reported any victimization or perpetration of unwanted sexual activities, approximately 18% of females, but 40% of males, reported that both victimization and perpetration had occurred. This raises questions about which adolescents may be willing to self-identify as perpetrating some form of unwanted sexual activity on another individual.
Strengths and Limitations
This study has a number of strengths. First, we assessed multiple forms of sexual coercion and violence, in addition to asking about both victimization and perpetration. We also assessed the frequency of violence over the past 12 months, while including an indicator of experiences that may have occurred more than 12 months ago. This allowed us to make broad comparisons with the commonly reported lifetime measures of sexual violence. We reminded students that the survey was anonymous hopefully to increase the likelihood that they would accurately report answers to the sensitive and personal questions. Finally, the sample of students in this study appears representative of the population of Kentucky high school students in the proportion who were not White and the proportion receiving free or reduced-price lunches (Clear et al., 2014).
As with all research, this study has a number of limitations. Self-reported data from high school students may be biased due to recall and intentional deception. We attempted to reduce the potential of recall bias to influence the validity of self-reported behaviors related to violence (Brener et al., 2002) by using the time frame of the past 12 months when asking the questions. However, these figures may underestimate the true prevalence of unwanted sexual activities among high school students in Kentucky. Despite our efforts to engage all students to participate, males had a lower response rate than females, leading to slightly more females in the sample. In addition, at certain schools, seniors were not available for surveying due to other commitments in the spring, leading to the underrepresentation of seniors. Finally, in terms of risk of both victimization and perpetration, we have a limited number of covariates and were not able to explore variables such as disability (Alriksson-Schmidt, Armour, & Thibadeau, 2010) or immigrant status (Decker, Raj, & Silverman, 2007) that have been shown to be important in other studies. We also have no information on the relationship to the other person involved in the unwanted sexual activity as either perpetrator or victim (e.g., boyfriend or girlfriend, acquaintance).
Conclusion
Comparisons of the percentage of high school students who reported forced sexual violence victimization were lower in our sample than recent YRBS data for both males and females; however, a higher percentage of students reported unwanted sexual activities due to pressure from a partner or while under the influence of alcohol or drugs. The distinction between an inability to consent and an inability to refuse, and how adolescents may recognize or respond to these situations, may be critical to ensuring successful prevention efforts. Furthermore, understanding the types, frequency, and demographic correlates of the unwanted sexual activities experienced and perpetrated by adolescents can also help direct prevention efforts by allowing for the development of more targeted strategies.
Footnotes
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge everyone across the Commonwealth of Kentucky who contributed to this research. The authors also wish to thank Dr. Sheila Clyburn for her comments and suggestions on preparing the article.
Authors’ Note
The findings and conclusions in this article are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official position of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: Research was supported by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Cooperative Agreement 5U01CE001675.