Beyond Fundamental Dimensions of Mood in Predicting Depressive Symptoms and Suicidal Ideation in Victims of Interpersonal Violence: Examining the Role of Dispositional Optimism in Chinese Females With and Without Experience of Victimization

Abstract

The present study tested a prediction model involving affectivity and dispositional optimism as predictors of suicide risk (i.e., depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation) in young adult Chinese females with and without prior interpersonal violence (IPV) victimization (294 nonvictimized and 94 victimized females). Results of hierarchical regression analyses indicated that negative affectivity was a significant predictor of both depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation for Chinese females, regardless of IPV victimization. Beyond affectivity, dispositional optimism was found to further add to the prediction model of depressive symptoms in both groups, but only for suicidal ideation in the IPV victimized group.

Keywords

suicide interpersonal violence victimization young adult Chinese females affectivity optimism

Suicide ranks among one of the most serious global health concerns, with at least 800,000 deaths resulting from suicide per annum (World Health Organization [WHO], 2019a). Indeed, for countries around the world, suicide, especially suicide among young adults, remains a substantial issue (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2020) that is not constrained to Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic (WEIRD) contexts and cultures (Henrich et al., 2010). In fact, global population estimates have provided evidence that suicide is not only a cross-cultural problem, but one that is more likely to be of greater concern for males, who overall, are shown to be at greater risk for suicide than their female counterparts (National Institute of Mental Health, 2019; Värnik, 2012). However, notably, this is not an entirely invariant pattern. China, for example, is one of the handful of countries in the world in which females outnumber males in dying by suicide (Shiquing et al., 1994; WHO, 2019a). In fact, Chinese females have consistently accounted for more deaths by suicide than Chinese males for the past 17 years (Pridmore & Pridmore, 2020).

Suicide Among Adult Females in the Context of Chinese Society

The persistence of gender differences in Chinese suicide rates suggests that culture can strongly impact suicidal behavior (Pridmore & Pridmore, 2020). Several studies have pointed to patriarchal patterns rooted in traditional Confucianist beliefs as one compelling factor that may contribute to subordination and violence against women in both physical and nonphysical forms (e.g., Tang & Lai, 2008; Zhang, 2013). However, contemporary Chinese society is further complicated by more substantial sociopolitical clashes between modern and traditional values and perspectives. On one hand, greater awareness and condemnation of sexist ideologies and behaviors in recent years may be associated with the benefits of potentially greater social and cultural independence among Chinese females (Brownridge, 2006). Alternatively, these changes in the climate of Chinese society can also simultaneously represent a significant stressor by which young adult Chinese females are faced with additional multivalent pressures to reconcile with as well as honor traditional Chinese values. Given that China is the most populous country in the world (U.S. Census Bureau, 2020), and that a preponderance of studies have proffered support for the unique risk of young Chinese females to attempt suicide compared to their male counterparts (Hu et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2019; McKinnon et al., 2016), a pressing interest and need has developed to identify factors that can contribute to and/or buffer suicide risk in young adult Chinese females.

In both research and practice, the assessment of suicide risk often focuses on two conditions, depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation (Perlman et al., 2011; Westefel & Furr, 1987). Indeed, among young adults, depressive symptoms are viewed as an important index of suicide risk (Dvorak et al., 2013), as research has indicated that approximately nine out of every 10 young adults who attempt suicide suffer from depression (Hirsch et al., 2011). In addition to depressive symptoms, suicidal ideation is known as another key, and more proximal, sign of suicide risk, as thinking about or planning suicide is a common antecedent to potential engagement in harmful suicidal behaviors (e.g., Kelley et al., 2018). In this manner, depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation are regarded as both distal and proximal indicators of suicide risk in young adult populations, respectively (Bonner & Rich, 1987).

Affectivity and Optimism as Predictors of Suicide Risk in Young Adult Chinese Females: Does Being a Victim of Interpersonal Violence Also Matter?

Although numerous variables have been posited as important predictors of suicide risk in young adults (e.g., loneliness, perfectionism, low self-esteem, hopelessness; Muyan & Chang, 2015; McGee et al., 2001), perhaps two of the most basic that can be considered are affectivity and dispositional optimism. According to Watson and Tellegen (1985), affectivity represents a fundamental dimension of mood, which can be distinguished between positive and negative affectivity (see also Watson et al., 1988). While positive affectivity refers to the disposition to experience positive emotions such as enthusiasm and joy, negative affectivity refers to the disposition to experience negative emotions such as sadness and fear. Interestingly, findings from several studies indicate the contribution of affectivity, especially negative affectivity, to heightened suicide risk in adults (e.g., Chang, 2002; Chang & Sanna, 2001). Indeed, findings from studies involving young adults of Asian heritage (e.g., Chinese, Koreans, Asian Americans) have also pointed to the link between negative affectivity and heightened risk for suicide (e.g., Chang et al., 2003), as well as positive affectivity and decreased risk for suicide (e.g., Tian et al., 2017; Yang et al., 2015).

A similar pattern of findings has emerged in the study of dispositional optimism. According to Scheier and Carver (1985), dispositional optimism refers to an individual holding generalized positive outcome expectancies. Findings from numerous studies have consistently pointed to a negative association between optimism and suicide risk in young adults (e.g., Hirsch et al., 2007; O’Keefe & Wingate, 2013; Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2020; Yi et al., 2021), including among young adults of Asian heritage (e.g., Chinese, Asian Americans; Xia et al., 2016; Yu & Chang, 2016). For example, Yue et al. (2017) found that greater optimism was related to significantly fewer depressive symptoms in a large sample of Chinese college students. Despite identifying affectivity and optimism as important predictors of suicide risk, to date no study has directly compared the relative importance of optimism and affectivity in predicting suicide risk among Chinese young adults.

Further, given the unique gender-based pattern of suicide in China that indicates greater rates of suicide among Chinese females (Pridmore & Pridmore, 2020), it might also be worth considering how suicide risk might vary as a function of gendered experiences of victimization (e.g., Chan et al., 2010a, 2010b; Tang & Lai, 2008). Unfortunately, violence against women is not only common, but also often has fatal consequences for victims, including homicide or suicide (Humphreys & Lee, 2009; WHO, 2019b). Indeed, findings from studies suggest that females, compared to males, are more likely to be victims of interpersonal violence, or IPV, ranging from psychological and emotional abuse to physical and sexual assault (e.g., Iverson et al., 2013; Montesanti & Thurston, 2015). Moreover, this pattern of violence against women is not limited to a particular country or region of the world (Devries et al., 2013; WHO, 2019b). For example, findings show that women in China are commonly victims of violence (Bouhours & Broadhurst, 2015), including IPV victimization of Chinese females in relationships (Xu et al., 2001; Yanqiu et al., 2011).

According to fluid vulnerability theory (Rudd, 2000), stressors in the form of static and dynamic cognitive-emotional factors (e.g., dispositional optimism, negative affect) as well as environmental factors (e.g., negative life events) can contribute to heightened suicide risk (Joiner & Rudd, 2000). In consideration of this framework, the present study was guided by a view that Chinese females with a history of experiencing IPV would be particularly vulnerable to suicide risk. Indeed, some studies have found that adult females who have experienced IPV are much more likely to have suicidal thoughts, or to have attempted to commit suicide (Simon et al., 2002; Yanqiu et al., 2011). However, few studies have examined nested regression models involving affectivity and dispositional optimism as predictors of suicide among those who have and have not experienced IPV. Moreover, we are not aware of any study examining such models in young adult Chinese females, specifically.

Purpose of the present study

Given these concerns and possibilities, we conducted the present study to (a) examine differences in levels of affectivity, dispositional optimism, and suicide risk, namely, depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation, in Chinese female college students with and without experience of IPV; and (b) compare the prediction model involving affectivity and dispositional optimism as predictors of suicide risk in Chinese female college students based on experience of IPV.

First, we hypothesized that, given the harmful effects of experiencing IPV (Chan et al., 2010b; Humphreys & Lee, 2009), Chinese females with experience of IPV, compared to those without experience of IPV, would report lower positive affectivity and dispositional optimism, but greater negative affectivity, depressive symptoms, and suicidal ideation. Second, consistent with previous studies suggesting that affectivity and optimism are important predictors of suicide risk (e.g., Tian et al., 2017; Xu et al., 2015), we hypothesized that affectivity and optimism would emerge as significant predictors of both distal (i.e., depressive symptoms) and proximal (i.e., suicidal ideation) indicators of suicide risk in young adult Chinese females. Finally, given that individuals with IPV victimization may generally be less well-adjusted (e.g., Yanqiu et al., 2011), we expected that there may be some differences in the role of affectivity and/or optimism in predicting suicide risk between the nonvictimized and victimized groups of Chinese young adult females. Thus, we hypothesized that among Chinese female college students, those who have been victims of IPV would present with greater suicide risk than those who have not been victims of IPV.

Methods

Participants

This study consisted of 390 first-year female college students attending an introductory psychology class in a large public university in Beijing, China, who volunteered for the study to fulfill a course requirement. Participants were given a paper-pencil survey containing a battery of questions and were instructed to return the survey upon completion. Ages ranged from 18 to 24 years, with a mean age of 18.38 years (SD = 0.65).

Measures

Dispositional Optimism

Dispositional optimism was measured by the Revised Life Orientation Test (LOT-R; Scheier et al., 1994). The LOT-R is a 10-item measure of generalized outcome expectancies. Six items assess for optimism (e.g., “In uncertain times, I usually expect the best”) and four items are fillers. Participants rate items across a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree). In the present study, a Chinese-translated version of the LOT-R (Lai et al., 1998) that was found to possess good internal reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.70) in a sample of Chinese college students was used. In general, higher total scores on the LOT-R are indicative of greater dispositional optimism.

Positive and Negative Affectivity

Positive and negative affectivity were measured by the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS; Watson et al., 1988). The PANAS is a 20-item measure with 10 items that assess for positive affect (PA; e.g., “interested,” “excited,” “strong”) and 10 items that assess for negative affect (NA; e.g., “distressed,” “upset,” “scared”). Participants rate how they generally feel (i.e., “Indicate the extent you generally feel this way, that is, how you feel on average”) using a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (very slightly or not at all) to 5 (extremely). In the present study, a Chinese-translated version of the PANAS (Huang et al., 2003) that was found to possess excellent internal reliability for both PA and NA subscales (Cronbach’s αs = 0.83 and 0.85) in a sample of Chinese adults was used. Higher total scores on the PA and NA subscales reflect greater positive and negative affectivity, respectively.

Depressive Symptoms

Depressive symptomatology was assessed by the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI; Beck et al., 1961). The BDI is a 21-item measure of depressive symptoms. Participants rate how well each item describes how they have felt in the past 2 weeks using a 4-point Likert-type scale ranging from 0 (e.g., I don't get more tired than usual) to 3 (e.g., I am too tired to do anything). In the present study, a Chinese-translated version of the BDI (Zheng et al., 1988) that was found to possess excellent internal reliability (Cronbach’s α =0 .85) in a sample of depressed Chinese adults was used. Higher total scores on the BDI indicate more severe depressive symptoms.

Suicidal Ideation

Suicidal ideation was assessed by the Frequency of Suicidal Ideation Inventory (FSII; Chang & Chang, 2016). The FSII is a 5-item measure of suicidal ideation during the past year (e.g., “Over the past 12 months, how often have you thought about committing suicide?”). Participants indicate how frequently they have entertained each suicidal thought over the past year using a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (almost every day). In the present study, a Chinese-translated version of the FSII (Chang & Chang, 2016) that was found to possess good internal reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.85) in a sample of Chinese college students was used. Higher total scores on the FSII are indicative of greater suicidal ideation.

Interpersonal Violence Victimization

To screen for IPV victimization, we used the Extended-Hurt-Insult-Threaten-Scream (E-HITS; Chan et al., 2010a), an extended and Chinese version of the HITS (Sherin et al., 1998), to identify those with and without a history of IPV victimization. The E-HITS is a 5-item measure that assesses for IPV victimization during the past year (i.e., “How often does your partner scream or curse at you?”). Participants respond to each item on a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (frequently). The E-HITS was found to possess excellent internal reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.90) in a sample of Chinese female hospital patients (Chan et al., 2010a). Higher total scores on the E-HITS are indicative of a greater frequency of IPV victimization. In the present study, individuals who reported experiencing any IPV more than once (i.e., total score > 5), were coded into the IPV group.

Procedure

Approval for the study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of the university where the study was conducted prior to data collection. All participants were given the present set of measures in random order, which have been previously translated into Chinese and validated. All participants provided informed consent. Information regarding local resources for students dealing with IPV and risk for suicide were provided during debriefing. Participants were not made aware of the purpose of the study until after they had completed all measures. Students who participated in the present study received course credit to compensate them for their time.

Results

Based on scores on the E-HITS, participants were divided into those who had not experienced IPV (i.e., E-HITS score = 5; n = 294) and those who had experienced IPV in the past year (i.e., E-HITS scores > 5; n = 96).

Correlations Among Study Variables in Young Adult Chinese Females With and Without IPV Victimization

Correlations between the present set of measures in females with and without IPV victimization are presented in Table 1. As shown, optimism was negatively and significantly associated with depressive symptoms in both those with IPV victimization (r = −.43) and without IPV victimization (r = −.29), as well as suicidal ideation in both those with IPV victimization (r = −.37) and without IPV victimization (r = −.18). Additionally, negative affectivity was positively and significantly associated with depressive symptoms in both those with IPV victimization (r = .35) and without IPV victimization (r = .35), as well as suicidal ideation in both those with IPV victimization (r = .26) and without IPV victimization (r = .26). In contrast, positive affectivity was only found to be negatively and significantly associated with depressive symptoms among females with IPV victimization (r = −.21). Finally, it is worth noting that in comparing the correlations across groups, the association between depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation was significantly stronger in females with IPV victimization (r = .70) than that in females without IPV victimization (r = .38), z = 3.92, p < .001.

Table 1.

Zero-Order Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations of all Study Measures in Young Adult Chinese Females With and Without IPV Victimization.

	1	2	3	4	5
1. Optimism	—
2. Positive affectivity	0.41***	—
2. Positive affectivity	0.50***
3. Negative affectivity	−0.35***	0.11	—
3. Negative affectivity	−0.32**	−0.01
4. Depressive symptoms	−0.29***	−0.05	0.35***	—
4. Depressive symptoms	−0.43***	−0.21*	0.35***
5. Suicidal ideation	−0.18**	−0.06	0.26***	.38***	—
5. Suicidal ideation	−0.37***	−0.16	0.26**	0.70***

Note. Values not in bold are for nonvictimized females (n = 294). Values in bold are for victimized females (n = 96) IPV = interpersonal violence.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Group Differences in Study Variables Between Young Adult Chinese Females With and Without IPV Victimization

Table 2 presents the results of t-tests comparing optimism, affectivity, and suicide risk between females with and without IPV victimization. As shown, females with IPV victimization, compared to females without IPV victimization, expressed significantly lower levels of dispositional optimism (Ms = 14.45 vs. 15.21, respectively). Additionally, females with IPV victimization, compared to females without IPV victimization, expressed significantly higher levels of negative affectivity (Ms = 24.82 vs. 22.13, respectively), depressive symptoms (Ms = 29.00 vs. 25.81, respectively), and suicidal ideation (Ms = 6.27 vs. 5.42, respectively). Interestingly, no significant group difference was observed on levels of positive affectivity (Ms = 34.31 vs. 34.24, respectively). Effect sizes of group differences (i.e., Cohen's d; Cohen, 1977) were computed. For these analyses, sigma was adjusted given the unequal standard deviations underlying the two samples. Using Cohen’s (1977) convention for small (d = 0.20), medium (d = 0.50), and large effects (d = 0.80), results indicate that significant differences found between females with and without IPV victimization typically were in the small to medium effect size range.

Table 2.

Mean Differences on Study Variables in Young Adult Chinese Females With and Without IPV Victimization.

	IPV group
	No IPV		IPV
Criterion	M	SD	M	SD	t(1, 388)	Cohen's d
Optimism	15.21	3.31	14.45	3.04	2.00*	0.24
Positive affectivity	34.24	6.13	34.31	4.95	−0.10	0.01
Negative affectivity	22.13	5.61	24.82	5.94	−4.02***	0.47
Depressive symptoms	25.81	5.61	29.00	8.30	−4.26***	0.45
Suicidal ideation	5.42	1.26	6.27	2.85	−4.06***	0.39

Notes. For nonvictimized females, n = 294. For victimized females, n = 96. IPV = interpersonal violence.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Affectivity and Dispositional Optimism as Predictors of Suicide Risk in Young Adult Chinese Females With and Without IPV Victimization

To investigate if dispositional optimism accounted for additional variance in suicide risk, namely, depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation, even after accounting for affectivity, we conducted nested regression models. In predicting each of the two suicide risk outcomes, we controlled for age in Step 1. We then entered PA and NA scores, as a set, in Step 2. Finally, LOT-R scores were entered in Step 3. To determine whether any of the predictors accounted for a small, medium, or large amount of the variance in functioning, we used Cohen’s (1977) convention for small (f² = 0.02), medium (f² = 0.15), and large effects (f² = 0.35).

Results of these analyses for predicting depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation in Chinese females without IPV victimization are presented in Table 3. As shown, independent of age, affectivity was found to account for a medium (f² = 0.15) 13% of unique variance in depressive symptoms, F(2, 290) = 21.83, p < .001. This result was found to be driven by negative affectivity (β = 0.36, p < .001). Next, the inclusion of optimism as a predictor was found to account for a small (f² = 0.02), but significant 2% of additional variance in depressive symptoms, F(1, 289) = 7.95, p <.001. In predicting suicidal ideation, independent of age, affectivity was found to account for a small (f² = 0.08), but significant 7% of unique variance in suicidal ideation, F(2, 290) = 11.91, p < .001. This result was found to be driven by negative affectivity (β = 0.27, p <.001). Finally, the inclusion of optimism as a predictor was not found to account for any additional amount of unique variance.

Table 3.

Results of Hierarchical Regression Analyses Showing Amount of Variance in Suicide Risk Accounted for by Affectivity and Dispositional Optimism Among Young Adult Chinese Females Without IPV Victimization, Controlling for Demographic Factors.

Suicide risk and predictors	β	R ²	ΔR²	df	F
Depressive symptoms
Step 1: Demographic factors		.00	—	1, 292	0.26
Age	0.03
Step 2: Affectivity		.13	.13	2, 290	21.83***
Positive affectivity	−0.09
Negative affectivity	0.36***
Step 3: Optimism	−0.19**	.16	.02	1, 289	7.95**
Suicidal ideation
Step 1: Demographic factors		.00	—	1, 292	0.02
Age	−0.01
Step 2: Affectivity		.08	.08	2, 290	11.91***
Positive affectivity	−0.09
Negative affectivity	0.27***
Step 3: Optimism	−0.07	.08	.00	1, 289	1.08

Note. n = 294. IPV = interpersonal violence.

**p < .01. ***p < .001.

Results of conducting respective analyses for predicting depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation among Chinese females with IPV victimization are presented in Table 4. As shown, independent of age, affectivity was found to account for a medium (f² = 0.20) 17% of unique variance in depressive symptoms, F(2, 92) = 9.59, p <.001. This result was found to be driven by both positive affectivity (β = −0.20, p <.05) and negative affectivity (β = 0.36, p <.001). Next, the inclusion of optimism as a predictor was found to account for a small (f² = 0.08), but significant 7% of additional variance in depressive symptoms, F(1, 91) = 8.53, p < .001. In predicting suicidal ideation, independent of age, affectivity was found to account for a small (f² = 0.10), but significant 9% of unique variance in suicidal ideation, F(2, 92) = 4.63, p <.05. This result was found to be driven by negative affectivity (β = 0.26, p <.05). Finally, the inclusion of optimism as a predictor was found to account for a small (f² = 0.07), but significant 6% of unique variance in suicidal ideation, F(2, 91) = 6.89, p <.01.

Table 4.

Results of Hierarchical Regression Analyses Showing Amount of Variance in Suicide Risk Accounted for by Affectivity and Dispositional Optimism Among Young Adult Chinese Females With IPV Victimization, Controlling for Demographic Factors.

Suicide risk and predictors	β	R ²	ΔR²	df	F
Depressive symptoms
Step 1: Demographic factors		.00	—	1, 94	0.19
Age	0.05
Step 2: Affectivity		.17	.17	2, 92	9.59***
Positive affectivity	−0.20*
Negative affectivity	0.37***
Step 3: Optimism	−0.33**	.25	.07	1, 91	8.53**
Suicidal ideation
Step 1: Demographic factors
Age	−0.04	.00	—	1, 94	0.23
Step 2: Affectivity		.09	.09	2, 92	4.63*
Positive affectivity	−0.16
Negative affectivity	0.26*
Step 3: Optimism	−0.31*	.16	.06	1, 91	6.89**

Note. n = 96. IPV = interpersonal violence.

*p < .05. **p < .01. ***p < .001.

Post hoc nested regression analyses were conducted to examine if regression coefficients of positive affectivity, negative affectivity, and optimism in the prediction model were statistically different between females with and without IPV victimization. Results showed that the regression effects of negative affectivity and optimism, but not positive affectivity, in predicting both suicide risks were significantly different between the two groups. Specifically, the effects of negative affectivity and optimism were much stronger in predicting depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation in females with IPV victimization than in those without IPV victimization.

Finally, given that depressive symptoms are considered a more distal marker of suicide, post hoc nested regression analyses were conducted to test if depressive symptoms would predict suicidal ideation in females with and without IPV victimization. When depressive symptoms were entered in Step 4, depressive symptoms were found to account for a large (f² = 0.54) and significant 35% of unique variance in suicidal ideation in the group with IPV victimization, F(1, 90) = 63.59, p < .001, and a small (f² = 0.10), but significant 9% of unique variance in suicidal ideation in the group without IPV victimization, F(1, 88) = 30.00, p < .001. Thus, consistent with expectations, depressive symptoms remained a significant predictor of suicidal ideation.

Discussion

In recent years, much attention has been given to suicide rates all over the world, and increased research has been dedicated to identifying factors of suicide risk. Optimism and affectivity are considered two crucial factors of suicide (Hirsch et al., 2007; Xu et al., 2015). Given the unique gender-based pattern of suicide and concerns for violence against women in China (Shiquing et al., 1994; Xu et al., 2001), the goal of the present study was to examine for differences in suicide risk among young adult Chinese females with and without IPV victimization and to determine if a prediction model involving affectivity and optimism would be useful in accounting for suicide risk outcomes in each group.

Group Differences in Young Adult Chinese Females With and Without IPV Victimization

Testing for group differences between young adult Chinese females with and without IPV victimization in the present study yielded some notable differences. Specifically, consistent with expectations and previous research findings (e.g., Chan et al., 2010b; Humphreys & Lee, 2009), Chinese females with IPV victimization reported significantly lower optimism and greater negative affectivity, compared to those without IPV victimization. Importantly, with regard to suicide risk, Chinese females with IPV victimization also reported significantly greater depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation, compared to those without IPV victimization. Interestingly, in the present study, we did not find any significant difference in positive affectivity between the two groups. It might be that, socially and culturally, it is important for Chinese females, including those who have experienced IPV victimization, to maintain a moderate level of positive affectivity (e.g., Shaw et al., 1997). Nonetheless, future studies are needed to further clarify the similar levels of positive affectivity found between these groups. Overall, these findings indicate that Chinese females with, compared to without, IPV victimization are less positive about their futures, more likely to experience chronic negative mood, and are at greater risk of suicide.

Negative Affectivity and Dispositional Optimism as Predictors of Suicide Risk in Young Adult Chinese Females With and Without IPV Victimization

Consistent with past research findings based largely on WEIRD (Henrich et al., 2010) populations (e.g., Chang & Sanna, 2001), we found that affectivity was an important predictor of both distal (i.e., depressive symptoms) and proximal (i.e., suicidal ideation) indices of suicide risk in Chinese females with and without IPV victimization. More specifically, we found that the presence of negative affectivity consistently predicted significant variance in both indices of suicide risk regardless of IPV victimization history. Additionally, we found that the lack of positive affectivity uniquely predicted depressive symptoms, but not suicidal ideation, among young adult Chinese females who had experienced IPV victimization.

In line with past findings (e.g., Hirsch et al., 2007), we found that greater optimism in young adult Chinese females might be associated with decreased risk of suicide. That is, when optimism was added to the prediction model in Chinese females that had experienced IPV victimization, it was found to further account for additional unique variance in both distal (i.e., depressive symptoms) and proximal (i.e., suicidal ideation) markers of suicide risk, beyond that accounted for by affectivity. In contrast, in the nonvictimized group of Chinese females, optimism only added unique variance to the prediction model for depressive symptoms, beyond that accounted for by affectivity. These findings suggest that lack of dispositional optimism might be contributive to further suicide risk and especially detrimental to young adult Chinese females who have experienced IPV victimization.

Taken together, the present findings provide some important potential considerations for suicide prevention and treatment efforts among young adult Chinese females. Our findings not only consistently implicate negative affectivity in the prediction of suicide risk (i.e., depressive symptoms, suicidal ideation) in Chinese females with or without IPV victimization, but furthermore point to the additional contribution of lack of dispositional optimism to heightened suicide risk, especially among those with IPV victimization. Thus, our findings suggest that suicide prevention programs working with young adult Chinese females might be most beneficial if they include efforts to bolster positive affect, decrease negative affect, and foster greater optimism. For example, current interventions targeting negative and positive affectivity for the treatment and/or prevention of depression and suicide (e.g., Craske et al., 2019) may benefit from adding a specific focus on promoting optimism. Furthermore, the present findings underscore the importance for practitioners and researchers to screen for prior IPV victimization when assessing suicide risk (Warshaw et al., 2018).

Limitations

Some limitations are worth considering when interpreting the findings of the present study. First, although the present research highlights affectivity and optimism in prediction of suicide risk in a non-WEIRD population (i.e., Chinese female victims of IPV), it remains to be evaluated whether the present findings are generalizable to other non-WEIRD populations (e.g., Korean male victims of IPV). Second, the present study was limited to examining young adults (i.e., college students). However, in the context of this study, it would be important to also consider how this suicide prediction model operates in older adult Chinese females, such as those that are married and encounter domestic violence (Yick, 2001). Third, the present study relied on a measure of IPV experienced in the past year. Although this assessment reflects relatively recent experience of IPV, it would be useful in future studies to gain a more precise understanding of how recency of IPV victimization (e.g., Astin et al., 1993) further influences suicide risk in Chinese females. Relatedly, although 25% of the sample reported experience of IPV, it should be noted that these estimates may underestimate participants’ experience of IPV given compelling cultural barriers to disclosing or attending to such experiences (Li et al., 2020). Fourth, beyond these fundamental dimensions of mood and cognition (i.e., affectivity, optimism), because some researchers have noted the importance of transactional processes such as coping (e.g., Kocot & Goodman, 2003), it would be useful to determine if understanding how Chinese females cope with IPV might also matter in better understanding suicide risk. Finally, given the cross-sectional nature of the present research, it would be useful for future studies to determine if affectivity and optimism predict changes in suicide risk across time in both Chinese females with and without IPV victimization.

Concluding thoughts

In the present study, affectivity and dispositional optimism were examined as predictors of suicide risk, namely, depressive symptoms and suicidal ideation in young adult Chinese women. Additionally, we sought to determine if there were any differences in the hypothesized prediction model between Chinese females with and without experience of IPV victimization in the past year. Overall, results indicated that for depression, the distal marker of suicide risk, negative affectivity and optimism were found to be an important predictor for Chinese females, independent of IPV victimization history. For suicide ideation, the proximal marker of suicide risk, negative affectivity was also found as a significant predictor in both groups; however, dispositional optimism was found to be an important predictor only in Chinese females with IPV victimization. In the future, it would be important to examine how the present findings apply to predicting suicide risk in other non-WEIRD female victimized populations.

Footnotes

Acknowledgments

The first author finalized the design of the study and performed data interpretation. The first and second authors prepared the final manuscript. The second to fourth authors assisted with study design and contributed to data interpretation. The third and fourth authors provided critical revisions on earlier drafts. The authors thank Xuan Zhang and Chang Chin-Ho for their assistance with data collection and feedback.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Yifeng Du

Olivia D. Chang

Author Biographies

Yifeng Du is a graduate student in the Clinical Psychology program at Columbia University, USA.

Olivia D. Chang is a psychology student at the University of Michigan, USA.

Mingqi Li is a PhD student in the Psychological Science program at DePaul University, USA.

Misu Kwon is a master's student in the Psychology program at Yonsei University, KOR.

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