Empowerment Through Feminist Self-Defense: The IMPACT Lasts

My IMPACT training helps me in subtle ways on a daily basis. I consistently pay attention to my surroundings, I am more comfortable expressing boundaries and my feelings with people close to me, and I’m more confident in speaking up about things that I feel are unjust or inappropriate in spaces like my workplace.

Introduction

Contrary to popular images of self-defense as solely an armed response or a flurry of strikes and kicks, the above quote highlights how self-defense training prepared a student to pay greater attention to their environment, increased their comfort in setting boundaries and expressing feelings, and increased their confidence in challenging unacceptable and unjust behavior.

Self-defense training grounded in feminist principles of choice and agency and an understanding of a culture of violence and oppression prepare participants to address a continuum of oppressive behaviors from microverbal and physical intrusions to life-threatening situations (Kelly, 1987; McCaughey, 2016; Ullman, 2020). Although the scale of resistance may vary, people standing up for themselves and others when there is interpersonal and societal pressure to disregard their own safety and priorities exemplify empowerment and challenge social injustice (Thompson, 2014).

Self-defense for social justice is not new. Feminist and abolitionist movements of the 1800s and 1900s recognized the importance of individual and collective self-defense when demanding economic, political, and social freedom. The women's movement at the turn of the twentieth century recognized the importance of women developing skills to protect themselves while also challenging myths about women's weakness and inadequacies (Rouse, 2017). Black abolitionists and White allies understood that slavery could not be eliminated without individual and collective defenses (Jackson, 2019).

In the 1960s, the urban-based Black Panther Party and rural groups like the Bogalusa Deacons for Defense and the Mississippi Movement recognized the necessity of self-defense to challenge White supremacy and the double standard of justice (Crosby, 2002; Spencer, 2016; Wahad, 2020). Particularly in rural areas, self-defense was not seen as violence nor in conflict with nonviolence tactics but as a necessity for survival in the face of White oppression and violence (Crosby, 2002).

In the 1970s, self-defense was integral to social movements, including Black power, Red Power, the Chicano/a movement, and women's liberation (Thuma, 2015). Not only was self-defense viewed as necessary for self-protection and a means of developing individual full potential (Matthews, 1994; Pascalé et al., 1970; Searles & Berger, 1987) but as a means of resisting oppression and injustice (Thuma, 2015).

Embedded in these notions of self-defense is an understanding of a double standard in law and criminal justice, acceptability of violence and self-defense, and the value of people's lives. Contemporary feminist self-defense training carries on these traditions of connecting the individual and community, developing self-protection skills, not defining self-defense as violence, and challenging gender oppression and its intersections with oppression and injustice based on race, sexuality, and social class (De Welde, 2003; Hollander, 2018a; Hollander, 2021; McCaughey, 1997).

Feminist Self-Defense Training and Empowerment

Self-defense training with a feminist foundation is more often known as empowerment self-defense (ESD) but is also known as feminist self-defense and resistance training. Although IMPACT, like other self-defense systems, has distinctive elements, IMPACT organizations are part of the larger ESD movement. More research has been published on resistance and ESD training than on IMPACT. ESD is grounded in feminist principles and, as such, identifies violence as a social problem, holds perpetrators accountable for violence, prioritizes people discovering the power of their own bodies, offers a range of tools for self-protection, values the worth of each participant, trusts in people's ability to make choices for themselves, and is evidence-based (Hollander, 2018a; Thompson, 2014). Researchers have documented the positive outcomes for women and girls who participate in ESD and resistance programs (Hollander, 2018b; Jordan & Mossman, 2018, 2019; Sarnquist et al., 2014; Senn et al., 2021; Senn et al., 2015). Contrary to critiques of self-defense as victim-blaming, participation in ESD and resistance programs has been found to reduce victim-blaming (Hollander, 2018b; Jordan & Mossman, 2019; Senn et al., 2017). Other reported outcomes include increased physical and self-defense self-efficacy, overall self-confidence, knowledge of effective self-defense strategies, ability to recognize interpersonal abuse and risk, and reporting to others (Edwards et al., 2020; Hollander, 2018b; Jordan & Mossman, 2018, 2019). Participants in ESD programs report more positive feelings about their bodies and about other women as well as more awareness of gender inequality (Hollander, 2018b). ESD participants also report a reduced fear of violence, fewer posttraumatic stress symptoms, less support of rape myths, and less self-silencing (Hollander, 2018b; Hollander & Cunningham, 2020).

Research on ESD programs has included follow-up research at 10 months (Sinclair et al., 2013), 1 year (Hollander, 2014; Hollander & Cunningham, 2020), and 2 years (Senn et al., 2017). Researchers have consistently found that those taking an ESD or resistance program experienced less sexual violence after a course in comparison to those who did not take such a course (Hollander, 2014; Hollander & Cunningham, 2020; Senn et al., 2015, 2017; Sinclair et al., 2013). Research exploring how women protected themselves after participation in a feminist sexual assault resistance education program 2 years previously found that women applied skills and strategies in their everyday lives, became more assertive in everyday interactions, prioritized their own well-being, challenged gender norms, and used one or more assessment, verbal, and physical strategies to stop escalations of aggression or coercion in response to imminent threats or attacks (Crann et al., 2021).

In spite of evidence that ESD training reduces violence, victim-blaming, fear, stress, PTSD, and self-silencing and increases confidence, body positivity, prioritizing one's own well-being, awareness of gender inequality, and the willingness to challenge it, there continues to be opposition to women learning self-defense. Critiques include beliefs that self-defense training for women is inherently victim-blaming, men intent on raping women cannot be stopped, and women with self-defense skills will take unnecessary risks and irresponsibly harm men (Hollander, 2009; Ullman, 2022).

Women have historically been blamed for rape because of their appearance (e.g., how they are dressed) and behavior (e.g., drinking alcohol) so the critique that self-defense training inherently holds women responsible for controlling men's aggression is taken seriously by those teaching ESD (Crann et al., 2021; Hollander, 2009; Jordan & Mossman, 2019; Senn et al., 2017). Wanamaker (2014) describes the complex framework of ESD instruction as including the “self-defense paradox,” a simultaneous understanding that perpetrators are solely responsible for the violence they commit and that those at risk of violence can develop tools and skills to enhance their safety without being responsible for controlling male aggression.

ESD instructors also take seriously the assumptions that women are too weak to defend themselves and unable to make good judgments about risk (IMPACT International, 2011; Rosenblum & Taska, 2014; Senn et al., 2018; Taylor, 2023; Thompson, 2014). ESD instructors recognize that women and girls face risks rooted in sexism every day and enter ESD classrooms with experience in managing these risks and keeping themselves safe. ESD instructors build upon women's existing knowledge and experience to increase students’ abilities to assess and address risks (Senn et al., 2018; Taylor, 2023). ESD instructors also recognize the wide variations in women's physical strength and teach a range of tools and strategies that are not dependent upon strength while also acknowledging that these skills may not work in every situation (Taylor, 2023; Thompson, 2014).

People who perpetrate violence must stop their behavior, but to deny women the opportunity to learn additional self-protection tools and to assume women are incapable of responsibly and effectively defending themselves are not based on evidence but on deep-seated and unfounded beliefs that devalue women and perpetuate oppression and injustice. IMPACT and other ESD organizations vary in how explicitly they frame their work as feminist and as social justice, but there is an agreement that using empowerment self-defense skills challenges expectations for gendered behavior (De Welde, 2003; Hollander, 2021).

IMPACT Self-Defense

IMPACT is a self-defense training system developed by people from many different fields, including adult education, law enforcement, martial arts, physiology and movement, psychology, and sociology. It has been enriched by the experiences of and feedback from thousands of students and is anchored in research on violence and ESD and an intersectional feminist understanding of violence and resistance (Hotchkiss et al., 2022; IMPACT International, n.d.; Rosenblum & Taska, 2014).

The IMPACT Basics Course (also known as the Core Program and IMPACT Intensive but hereafter referred to as IMPACT Basics) is the longest-running program across IMPACT organizations. Since its beginnings more than 30 years ago, IMPACT Basics has been primarily a course for women. It is distinguished by realistic role-playing scenarios with a defender (student), aggressor (suited instructor), and a coach (lead instructor). During the role-playing scenarios, the lead instructor coaches students, as needed, on body language and body positioning, verbal skills, and physical fighting skills; offers support and encouragement; and oversees safety for students and instructors. Suited instructors who wear heavy padding portray a range of characters and move in realistic and varied ways, providing students with the opportunity to practice a range of skills, including full-power physical skills to knock out an assailant to gain time to get to a safer place. Suited instructors determine when a single strike or kick or a series of strikes and kicks would render them unconscious and unable to continue an attack for a few minutes or longer if they were not wearing body armor.

In its earliest days, scenarios were focused almost exclusively on defenders stopping an attempted rape. Although developing the skills to stop rape is still at the core of the IMPACT Basics course, in recent years and to varying degrees, IMPACT organizations have expanded role-playing scenarios to include a variety of situations with strangers and familiars from annoying to life-threatening. IMPACT organizations have also expanded scenario-based training beyond the women's IMPACT Basics course, offering programs for people across and not on the gender spectrum and for specific populations (e.g., women of color, people with disabilities). These programs are of varying lengths with mock aggressors often wearing body armor and sometimes not.

Scenario-based training stimulates emotional reactions, providing students with the opportunity to practice using their skills when adrenalized and with the guidance of a knowledgeable and encouraging coach and the support of peers. Students practice a variety of skills in realistic scenarios, such as breathing to manage their adrenaline, reading others’ body language to assess safety and threats, using their voices, projecting confident body language, as well as striking and kicking to vulnerable targets. Students drill skills and apply those skills in role-playing scenarios and observe and support other students in the drills and scenarios. The pedagogical idea is that these adrenalized repetitions of experience, observation, and support consolidate skill memory. People unfamiliar with the structure and process of IMPACT often assume it is primarily or exclusively about fighting. Learning physical skills and strategies is a key component of IMPACT, but the overarching goal is for people to develop an embodied confidence that supports effectively managing deep emotions while responding effectively to challenging situations.

Role-playing scenarios occur within the context of purposefully structured skill building, attention to emotional and physical safety, sensitivity to trauma, an understanding of gender and its intersections with other key social positions, and a commitment to both individual choice and community building (Hotchkiss et al., 2022; Rosenblum & Taska, 2014). Another pedagogical idea in IMPACT is that confidence in one's own body is the foundation for building confidence and competence in other self-defense skills. Over 30 years ago, Ozer and Bandura (1990) documented the effectiveness of realistic scenario-based training in a mastery modeling program with a simulated aggressor for increasing women's self-defense self-efficacy, sense of freedom, and level of activity and decreasing negative thinking, sense of vulnerability, and avoidant behavior. More recently, Hotchkiss et al. (2022) found similar results in an IMPACT Basics course embedded in a university counseling center. In pre-post assessments, students improved in interpersonal self-efficacy, self-defense self-efficacy, and PTSD symptoms and increased their feelings of confidence, empowerment, safety, freedom, and self-appreciation. In comparing practice against inanimate targets and against a padded attacker, Henderson (1997) found that women who practiced in scenarios with a padded assailant developed stronger self-defense skills than those who did not. Women's confidence in handling both verbal and physical violations also increased (Henderson, 1993; Holzman, 2011).

Anecdotes often highlight examples of women using their skills many years after completing IMPACT. Three studies, two unpublished, have examined how long the effects last for those who have participated in IMPACT or its predecessor Model Mugging. In a 6-month follow-up, women maintained self-efficacy, with stronger cognitive control efficacy in the follow-up period; sustained an increased level of activity; and maintained reduction in negative thinking, sense of vulnerability, and avoidant behavior (Ozer & Bandura, 1990). Women who had completed an IMPACT Basics program in the United Kingdom maintained the ability to effectively discern risk and reduce vulnerability 3 years after completing the course (Chipping, 2002). In a study of IMPACT Chicago, researchers found that women maintained confidence in their ability to use self-defense skills for as long as 5 years (Henderson et al., 1994).

Research Question

There is a body of evidence for the effectiveness of ESD programs in reducing violence and victim-blaming and increasing participants’ knowledge of risks of abuse, self-defense self-efficacy, and self-confidence. There is, however, a dearth of information about what lessons women carry with them after taking an IMPACT program. Because of the emphasis in IMPACT on participants training in an adrenalized state and developing striking and kicking skills, examining what lessons, concepts, or skills women apply after IMPACT is an important avenue for exploring whether women with physical self-defense skills take unnecessary risks, irresponsibly harm aggressors, or blame themselves for an attack or if they do not stop an attacker. Additionally, given the IMPACT self-defense training system has been around for over 30 years, it is an opportunity to examine how long the effects of this intense self-defense training last. Specifically, this study asked after completing an IMPACT program, what lessons do women apply and how long do they apply them?

Methods

Survey

The IMPACT Graduate Survey was developed by the IMPACT International Research Committee and administered by IMPACT Boston on SurveyMonkey. Eight IMPACT organizations publicized the survey via social media and organizational newsletters. The original purpose of the survey was to provide a foundation for developing a common set of questions that each IMPACT chapter could include in evaluations of their programs. The anonymous survey included questions about demographics (e.g., gender, race, sexuality, and disability), how long ago a participant had taken an IMPACT program, open-ended questions about a situation in which they had thought about their IMPACT experience, if there was anything else they would like IMPACT International to know, and permission to share their story anonymously. The open-ended question (Q1) about a situation they had experienced and thought about IMPACT was:

Thinking back to your IMPACT program, please describe any situation you have faced that made you think of something you learned from IMPACT. If applicable, please include: What happened? What lesson, concept, or skill did you remember or use? What did you do differently or what decision did you make because of something you learned from IMPACT? What do you remember, if anything, about what you were feeling?

Participants

The survey was completed by 111 people who had taken an adult IMPACT program. Nine of the survey participants did not answer Q1 and were excluded from the analysis. Of the 102 who answered Q1, 97 identified as women, four as men, and one as genderqueer. This study focused on the 97 women who completed the survey because women's self-defense has been a consistent offering in IMPACT organizations for over 30 years. For more than a decade, IMPACT organizations have recognized the often-neglected safety needs of people who are “trans, nonbinary, or otherwise not cisgender” (Kapitan, 2021, para. 28) and cisgender men who experience oppression because of race, social class, and sexuality. IMPACT organizations have addressed these needs differently. Some organizations have offered separate programming based on gender; some mixed gender programming, including cisgender men; and others mixed gender, excluding cisgender men. The importance of research including people across and not on the gender spectrum will be discussed in limitations of and future directions for the research.

The majority of the 97 participants reported that they are not living with a disability (81.14%; N = 79), are White (78.35%; N = 76), and heterosexual (70.1%; N = 68). Slightly more than half completed IMPACT over 5 years prior to completing the survey (54.63%; N = 53) and slightly less than half 5 years or less (45.36%; N = 44). Of those completing IMPACT 5 years or less, 31.81% (N = 14) had done so less than 1 year before completing the survey. The IMPACT International Research Committee decided to assess outcomes after less than 1 year, 1–5 years, and 5 plus years rather than a more refined scale (6–10, 11–15, etc.). The committee had incorrectly anticipated that most survey participants would have completed IMPACT within the prior 5 years.

The majority of participants (77.31%; N = 75) answered the open-ended question about something else they would like IMPACT International to know (Q11), and those responses were included in the analysis. Twelve of the 97 did not give permission for their stories to be shared beyond the analysis. The nine participants who did not complete Q1 were similar demographically to those who did complete the question, except six of them had completed the class 5 years or less when they completed the survey. The participants excluded because of gender identity were diverse by race (three White, two African American) and sexuality (three gay/queer, two heterosexual) and indicated no disabilities.

Data Analysis

The main analytic method for this research was classic grounded theory, an inductive sociological approach to qualitative analysis (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). In classic grounded theory, a researcher may have a broad guiding question, but no hypotheses or preestablished themes; the data directs the research; and the researcher is open to discovering patterns in the data while maintaining analytic distance and develops theory and concepts rooted in the voices of research participants (Glaser & Strauss, 1967; O’ Connor et al., 2018). Descriptive statistics were used for demographic information (e.g., gender, race, sexuality, and disability) and the frequency of themes. Content analysis was used to assess the presence or absence of the themes identified through grounded theory.

The broad guiding research question was, how did participants apply lessons learned from IMPACT? What did they experience? How did they respond? How did they feel? What did they think? Responses were examined line by line solely by the author, using hand coding to capture the core idea of each part of participants’ responses in their own words or phrases and then sorting these core ideas into groups. The groupings were based on context, not only specific words. For instance, “eye/eyes” had different meanings in different contexts. “Keeping an eye on something” was about awareness, and “making eye contact” was about a physical action. As I reflected on the data, I wrote analytic memos, notes about thoughts, ideas, and questions that arose. Through memo writing, I developed the meanings of each theme, identified concrete examples, and connected themes to each other.

Given that I was the only one identifying and developing themes, I checked that I was maintaining analytic distance by hiring two undergraduate seniors recommended by a colleague to assess the presence or absence of a theme in each survey response. One had taken IMPACT several years before but had no other connection to IMPACT, and the other was unfamiliar with IMPACT. I held two training sessions to enhance their understanding of content analysis; to familiarize them with the themes I had identified and their meanings; for them to raise questions and address ambiguities; and to practice coding. Once they understood the themes and how to code, their task was to read each participant's responses and code the presence or absence of the themes and comment where they saw ambiguities or had questions.

Agreement between one or both coders and me on the presence or absence of themes was 94.43% (N = 485). When I disagreed with one or both about whether or not a theme was present, I revisited the response to assess the presence or absence of a theme and relied on my own judgment to make a final decision. If I found a sentence or phrase that illustrated a theme, then I included the response in my analysis. If I could not find a sentence or phrase that illustrated a theme, I did not include the response. Working with these students was an important part of the data analysis because preparing them to code and addressing their questions, their comments, and areas of disagreement deepened my engagement with and reflection on the themes.

Results

This study examined the lessons women applied after taking an IMPACT self-defense program and how long after completing an IMPACT program they continued to apply those lessons. In response to the open-ended questions asking participants to describe any situation they have faced that made them think of something they learned from IMPACT and to add anything they wanted us to know, the majority of the 97 participants identified skills that they had used (89.69%; N = 87), and the majority also described their feelings and/or ways that IMPACT had influenced them (83.5%; N = 81). Most who identified a skill described two or more skills (63.21%; N = 55).

Participants’ descriptions indicated that because of their IMPACT training, they had options when facing stressful situations, and they were confident in making choices about what to do and taking effective action even when they were afraid. Participants most often mentioned using awareness, voice, and assertive body language. Below, I examine each of these skills separately and in combination followed by an analysis of participants’ perceptions of their feelings and how IMPACT had influenced them and finally a look at what lasted.

Lessons, Concepts, and Skills

In this section, I present the skills that survey participants said they had learned in an IMPACT program, details about the skills they highlighted, and the lessons they said supported using these skills.

I Am Aware

The majority of women participating in this study who identified a skill they learned (71.26%; N = 62) highlighted awareness of themselves, others, and their environment and noted that awareness is an everyday life skill: “Mainly the way IMPACT is helpful on a daily basis is my awareness of hints that a situation or person may not be safe.”

Participants’ descriptions revealed awareness as a multifaceted skill of noticing and trusting their own reactions to other people and ordinary and unusual situations, monitoring others and the surrounding environment when experiencing uneasiness, and continuing to pay attention until feeling safe. Participants’ courage and ability to be aware and make decisions about safety were strengthened by believing in their self-worth and right to be safe and having the knowledge and tools to back up those beliefs.

Noticing their own feelings, senses, or body reactions was one facet of awareness participants mentioned: “…getting the feeling that something isn’t right….” And trusting those feelings, sense, or body reactions was another: “I noticed I felt concerned and I allowed myself to become more aware of my surroundings.” For participants, paying more attention to the environment or others’ behavior meant gathering more information about sources of discomfort:

I started to feel uneasy—red flag—then I started to take notice of what was making me feel uneasy—people's voices nearby but no one around if I needed help—red flag #2—spotted a trash can that looked as if someone was crouching behind it. All observations made in a split second.

Participants described situations in which they noticed their own discomfort, gathered more information, and made decisions to take action based on the information they gathered. Most participants who identified awareness as a skill described using verbal and/or physical actions in combination with their awareness (82.25%; N = 51):

I had to use an ATM at a local shopping center the other night and it was largely deserted…I had just put my card in when I heard a weird gaspy kind of breathing, when I turned I first noticed someone on a bike but then I heard it again and realized it was coming from someone smoking a cigarette a few feet away somewhat hidden by some decorative plants. I made very brief eye contact with her and she moved away, possibly realizing she startled me. I finished using the ATM while glancing around a lot more and then decided that instead of walking right past her to get to the restaurant, I would walk back to the car where my mom was and then continue around.

Participants identified awareness as a skill not only for observing unusual behavior or situations but also about seeing patterns of unhealthy behavior in relationships: “After learning in class how to recognize a dangerous/manipulative person, I realized the relationship I was in at the time was an unhealthy one. I am now in a different one where I feel happy and safe.”

Participants indicated that underlying these awareness skills was affirmation that they had value and were worth defending: “IMPACT is not just teaching physical skills but also is impressing upon people that they really are worth fighting for and they deserve the right to be safe.” Participants recognized that they had the skills to handle challenging situations: “I remember thinking how clear everything seemed—the little spike of adrenaline and suddenly the file drawer containing all my options opened and I knew exactly what to do/say, exactly what my targets were.”

Having tools and strategies to face uncomfortable or threatening situations enhanced participants’ willingness and ability to be aware: “I describe my Women's Basics experience as nothing short of a total life transformation; moving from unconscious levels of ‘hope nothing happens’ to ‘OK, if something of a violent nature were to happen, I am capable.’” Participants said having tools and strategies also reduced anxiety and increased calmness and a sense of freedom: “While traveling on public transportation, I was alert without being tense or fearful, and traveled freely.” Participants made it clear that their greater awareness skills reduced fear: “Without IMPACT, I think I would have been frightened by the experience and not known what to do. Instead, I was calm, amused and ready to handle myself.”

I Know How to Use My Voice

Among those who described skills, most (68.96%; N = 60) noted using their voices as a memorable IMPACT lesson, and the descriptions of how they had used their voices were the most detailed of all the themes. The majority of th ose (73.33%; N = 44) used their voices in conjunction with awareness and/or physical tools. Collectively, participants’ accounts revealed that being able to advocate for themselves and others with confidence was based on respecting themselves and knowing that they had a range of tools to back up their words. Important qualities of using their voices were clarity and firmness, the ability to project and to regulate volume, and the willingness to stick to their own agenda and repeat themselves in the face of resistance.

Participants made it clear that using their voices was more than speaking; it meant speech based on self-knowledge, self-respect, and self-advocacy: “The discovery of my voice has probably been the most significant. I speak up now for what I want and know that my opinion matters. IMPACT has taught me how to say ‘no’ and the freedom to say ‘yes.’” According to the participants, using their voices meant a commitment to their own agenda and not explaining themselves: “I have learned to say no more easily. It's not one incident but many in which rather than hemming and hawing or finding an excuse, I’ve just said, ‘No, that's not convenient’ or something like that.”

Participants mentioned their confidence in the right to speak up: “The classes taught me to be confident in using my voice to say what I need and to keep myself safe.” Participants mentioned not feeling guilty about speaking up: “I have been able to let go of that guilty feeling when setting boundaries…If the first rule of self-defense is to go through the world with clear boundaries, so far, so good.”

One participant described how after someone she knew drugged and raped her, she used her voice to self-advocate and advocate on behalf of others when not believed by the police. She made it clear that her IMPACT training and the support she received during the class had been vital in holding the perpetrator accountable and not blaming herself:

This past summer I was drugged and assaulted at a party. There was nothing I could have done to be safer considering it was in my own house with my own alcohol. He was just good at slipping things into drinks that I watched him pour. Anyway, I used my IMPACT skills in the aftermath of dealing with the police. They did not believe me that anything had happened because “I was just a drunk white girl that regretted cheating on her boyfriend.” I fought to go to the hospital for a blood test, nearly threw a detective out of my house, went to the station to give a statement since they never took one and I was making sure this made it on record, and now I am working to write a story for the newspaper about their treatment of assault survivors.

Participants found they could speak up for themselves while also respecting others:

I have been able to talk to pan handlers and treat them with respect, looking them in the eyes, whether or not I choose to give them money. I even sometimes say, “I want to think about it before I decide.” I felt before like I had to hide from them and was tongue-tied. Now I feel like I am empowered to make the decision and even that I have the right to take time to make it.

Participants described the importance of a clear, unwavering tone when using their voices. In some cases, setting a verbal boundary with someone they knew: “An acquaintance was verbally being a jerk to me and I firmly told her to stop it.” Sometimes they said it was with people they didn’t know: “I had to tell a man to leave my 2 friends and I alone. I spoke loudly, sternly, and clearly.” Other times, participates described using their voice in work situations:

I work as an audiologist and a mom came in with her daughter for a hearing test. She was upset we were running late and was acting nasty about it. She also was standing really close to me, and I told her very clearly she has to take a step back. I felt so strong when she moved back.

And other times they described using their voice on behalf of others: “Just last month, I interrupted a situation where a male professor was bullying a woman student in the cafeteria. I remembered to keep calm, to use my voice firmly, to draw some clear boundaries, and to focus on the woman's needs.” When boundaries were disrespected, participants highlighted increasing volume and repeating their message:

Just last night, a man at the laundromat was talking to me and I told him I did not want to talk. He continued to talk to me, saying sexually charged things and verbally harassing me, and eventually I said “NO” loudly, at which point people were staring at us and he didn’t want people's eyes on him and left.

In cases of immediate danger, participants described yelling as effective:

I was at a train stop just after midnight on New Year's Eve. The place was packed. When we finally got up to the tracks for the next train, the crowd of drunks behind us got excited by the incoming train. Hundreds of people behind us were pushing us toward the tracks—we were about to be pushed in front of the incoming train. I calmly turned around, faced the crowd, and shouted in the biggest and deepest voice I could muster, “Calm down, people!” It was as if everyone took a breath in surprise. People froze in place long enough to stop pushing, and the train pulled in front of us without hitting anyone.

Participants’ examples highlighted the importance of projecting their voices, regardless of the specific words:

In a Walmart parking lot, I was approached inappropriately by a very, very large man who had veered in his car upon seeing me, got out and left his door open. As he approached me, I turned, met his eye and got in my stance and yelled, “Hi!” He turned around and ran back to his car, got in and drove away. Use the voice!

I Know What to Do With My Body

In addition to awareness and voice, participants also described physical skills they had learned in IMPACT. Almost half (49.42%; N = 43) described one or more physical tools. The majority of those participants (93.02%; 40) used assertive body language to prevent or interrupt others’ aggression, such as projecting a confident body posture, making eye contact, and moving in some way to increase their safety. Rarely did a participant use only a physical tool (9.3%; N = 4). Participants typically described their use of physical tools in combination with awareness and/or their voices:

I noticed an older man following me. I listened to my intuition and I kept my awareness up as I monitored his behavior. Once I was sure he was trying to be sneaky by following me, I turned and faced him with my hands in awareness and made direct eye contact with him as he came around a pillar. He stopped in his tracks and stared back at me for a few seconds and then walked away.

The stance participants mentioned consists of open hands in front of one's body and feet firmly planted. Participants described using this stance to underscore the gravity of a verbal message and simultaneously to communicate “I don’t want any trouble” and “I’m confident.” Participants often combined this stance with moving to create a safer distance or to be in a better position if they needed to strike or kick:

I had a situation for which I applied what I learned from IMPACT. When this stranger walked up to me on the sidewalk and loudly asked me, “Hey, can I ask you a question?” I learned from Women's Basics to honor my intuition… I looked him straight into his eye while trying to figure out how close and what position I needed to be in to give him a heel-palm and a kick in the groin. I don't know what my face looked like, as I was thinking those things, but he immediately looked scared. He turned around and left. I still remember feeling amazed at the outcome.

Participants noted how the training increased their ability to convey confidence, power, and intent with their body language and facial expressions: “Walking alone anywhere, at any time of day, I make sure I'm alert and walking with an air of calm confidence.”

Creating distance to interrupt another person's inappropriate behavior was a way of disrupting an aggressor's momentum and creating an opening for defenders to deescalate, take momentary control, or remove themselves from a situation: “An intoxicated man pushed me from behind…in a deliberate, firm, and guided way, for several steps. I stepped to the side to break his momentum.” Others addressed changing position: “A man sat down across from me, made eye contact, opened his fly, and began to fondle himself. I stood up, and right away he started tucking himself away, shaking his head and making shushing motions with one hand.”

Eye contact was another physical tool that participants identified as useful for communicating awareness of another's presence and changing interpersonal dynamics:

On a walking trail with my small kids, I was there too early, before school let out, so it was pretty deserted. A man came out of the woods where there was nothing but railroad tracks and a bluff for him to come from. My kids were on little bikes ahead of me. He started to follow me close behind. I stopped and turned toward him (staying between him and my kids) putting my hands up and meeting his eye, looking over him carefully. He turned and went back into the woods.

In another situation, a participant used eye contact to communicate respect as well as to support boundary setting:

My husband and I were walking down Haight Street when a man inserted himself into our conversation and started walking with us. I told the man that my husband and I were trying to have a private conversation and could he please not walk with us. The man started getting upset and said that he was just trying to be friendly and would not stop walking with us. I stopped, turned around facing the man with my hands up, I raised my sunglasses so I could look the man in the eyes. I said, “I know you're trying to be friendly, but this is a private conversation. I need you to either walk ahead of us or cross the street and walk on the other side of the street.” The man thanked me for raising my sunglasses and looking at him like a “real person.”

Some participants described situations where they were fearful, physically threatened, or assaulted and highlighted their knowledge of the physical tools they had available to defend themselves: “I did a mental inventory of my toolbox—hands up, palm to face, drop to the ground, etc.” Two participants defended themselves in life-threatening situations. One didn’t provide details but made it clear that their IMPACT skills were life-saving: “I was attacked and my IMPACT training saved my life!!!” Another described fighting to save her life:

The person I was with decided that he was going to wake me up in the middle of the night by choking me. He had my arms pinned under his legs against my sides. He was very angry and was going to kill me. I wish I could say I remembered to do the leg hook, but I didn’t. What I did remember is you never stop fighting, you never stop trying to free yourself and protect yourself. I got myself out of that situation I never thought I would be in again.

Survey participants made it clear that physical self-defense includes striking and kicking but also includes projecting a confident body posture, making eye contact, and moving one's body to be safer or to be in a better position to strike and kick, if needed. Participants’ confidence in using assertive body language was rooted in their knowing they also had additional skills they could draw upon.

Feelings: I Can Defend Myself Even if I’m Afraid

In addition to addressing skills and related lessons and concepts, participants reported feelings that they experienced when using their skills and how their training helped them manage those feelings. A majority (59.79%; N = 58) described their feelings when confronting hostility and navigating their everyday lives: “The idea that my hands and arms are stable, strong and ready is comforting.” Participants described feelings that could have potentially led to a freeze response, but with IMPACT training, they were able to experience these intense feelings and still take action to increase their safety: “I was totally freaked out but remembered to look around me and find a safe place.”

Participants highlighted adrenaline management—the simultaneous experience of an intense emotion (e.g., fear, intimidation, nervousness) and a feeling that allowed them to mobilize for action (e.g., readiness, calmness, in control): “I felt like I was in a split screen experience, the part of me that was scared and the part that knew what to do.” Some emphasized breathing when managing adrenaline: “IMPACT taught me the importance of breathing and that even ‘right now’ deserves a pause for a breath.” Others described controlling their adrenaline by focusing on what actions they could take:

In emergency situations (car accident, baby choking, kitchen fire), I focused on what I could do/control/act on and was not paralyzed by fear. I remember thinking, “I am adrenalized, but I need to assess what to do and act.” I was able to manage my adrenaline and be very effective.

Participants indicated that knowing what to do with their bodies in potentially dangerous situations had a calming effect, helped them manage their feelings, and responded effectively: “What I appreciated was that IMPACT had already given me opportunities to consider my options and react in an adrenalized state.” Participants described the importance of their IMPACT training in preparing them to face unsettling situations and act on their own and others’ behalf even when experiencing fear and anxiety: “What I learned in IMPACT brought out the courage in me.” Others acknowledged that the process of gaining those tools was not easy: “It was scary to take back my power but I was grateful for the tools.”

Participants described experiencing deep emotions, creating a rush of adrenaline. With their experience in realistic scenarios in IMPACT training, they listened to those feelings and used physical tools they had learned (e.g., breathing, stance, eye contact, projecting confidence) to harness those feelings to mobilize effective responses.

After IMPACT: I Have More Skills and Am More Confident

Implicit in all the responses was how IMPACT training contributed to participants’ thinking differently, behaving differently, or making different decisions than prior to the training. The majority (70.1%; N = 68) explicitly described ways that the training increased their competence, independence, effectiveness, and positive feelings about themselves.

Some focused on how their beliefs about their capabilities were different before and after the IMPACT training because they now had more tools: “Without my experiences in class at IMPACT, I would not have had the presence of mind or physical and verbal strategies to address this man and advocate for myself.” It changed participants’ presentation of self: “IMPACT changed the way I walk in the world.” By gaining skills to set boundaries and other tools, participants boosted their self-esteem: “After taking my IMPACT class, I don’t need protecting! It's a feeling of immense pride and empowerment that I have when I set clear boundaries and know that I have the skills to back up those boundaries if needed.” Others not only felt differently about themselves but noticed different treatment from others: “I appreciate and cherish what I learned through IMPACT, five years later. I noticed a change in my confidence and how men addressed me out in the street right after graduating. That change is still with me.”

Having more skills reduced anxiety and helped participants better manage remaining stress: “Overall IMPACT has made me more comfortable knowing that I can handle myself in a majority of situations. This in turn keeps my stress down and I can handle a lot more stressful situations and my adrenaline.” Others described feeling safer: “I feel much safer knowing what I know thanks to the IMPACT course.”

Some described living with less fear: “I increased my ability and confidence to set boundaries and make positive changes, to express my preferences, and to live with less fear.” Some reported less fear in threatening situations:

Before IMPACT I’m sure I would have been terrified when he spoke, said nothing, and worried the rest of the way home and probably for a long time after that he was going to follow me and kill or rape me.

Having IMPACT training enhanced participants’ independence: “I do feel like having attended the program has made me more confident to do things like hiking, running, and camping on my own.” Others made decisions to explore new avenues: “I have felt empowered to pursue new personal and business challenges leading to promotions, new relationships, and adventures. When things weren’t working for me at work, I felt the strength to make significant changes.” Some left intimate relationships because the lessons they learned in IMPACT enabled them to recognize an abusive relationship: “I realized that every time I set a boundary, my husband flipped out, and I knew that was not normal and not something a supportive spouse would do. I needed for me to recognize that my now ex-husband was verbally and emotionally abusive.”

Participants acknowledged that IMPACT training gave them a foundation for speaking up: “There have been multiple instances where I have been able to defuse behavior by being assertive and responsive. I would have remained quiet if I had not had the training.” Others observed that after the training they were less likely to freeze and more likely to address uncomfortable situations sooner than later: “I am more able to be present in the face of upsetting events, to take space if I need it instead of freezing in the moment. I am more likely to express myself and nip things in the bud instead of just being pleasant.” Others described being calmer and more effective than they would have been prior to IMPACT training:

Had I not had IMPACT, I would have gotten hot under the collar, I would have gotten emotional in a way where I would have been in less control of myself and the situation. IMPACT showed me not only how to stand up for myself but also how to be an ally.

Participants said that IMPACT training supported them in being more present, feeling more confident and competent, taking up more space, speaking up more, stopping intrusions sooner, and having the courage to make major life changes.

The IMPACT Lasts

Survey participants ranged from those who had completed an IMPACT program months before doing the survey to those who had taken an IMPACT program decades before. Regardless of how many years since participants had taken an IMPACT program, they highlighted increased awareness of themselves, others, and situations. Consistent across decades, participants shared their experiences in setting boundaries, interrupting others’ unacceptable behavior, and using their verbal skills to deescalate situations. Similarly, no matter the number of years since taking IMPACT, participants emphasized the physical skills of moving their bodies to increase their safety, projecting a confident and calm body posture, and making eye contact. Another common thread across the years was the ability to experience intense feelings while also being able to manage those feelings effectively and to take action to increase safety. Regardless of how long since they had taken IMPACT, participants stressed that after IMPACT, they had greater awareness, verbal, and physical skills. Having these skills increased their confidence, their willingness to face uncomfortable or unsafe situations, and their abilities to take action on behalf of their own and others’ safety.

Fourteen participants had completed a program less than a year before completing the survey, and 12 indicated in their open-ended responses that they had completed a program 9–31 years before (M = 20 years). Participants who had taken a program less than a year before highlighted how IMPACT had affected many aspects of their lives: “Impact changed my life, my day to day life. it's situations in my daily life that I go through without feeling bad that I said something or even worse when I didn’t say something.” Similarly, participants who had taken IMPACT a decade or more before credited IMPACT with having a positive influence on their lives: “I believe that my IMPACT experience has made a difference in my life EVERY DAY since I took Women's Basics over 20 years ago. IMPACT changed my life. I’m grateful every day.”

Participants who had completed IMPACT many years before made it clear that they still have the skills: “20 + years after graduating, I’m still ready to defend myself.” Participants emphasized that IMPACT skills were an integral part of their lives: “There have been many times and ways I’ve used those skills” (31 years). They emphasized how it had improved their lives: “What I gained from IMPACT went well beyond effective physical fighting skills. I increased my ability and confidence to set boundaries and make positive changes, to express my preferences and to live with less fear” (27 years). Participants expressed that they lived with less fear, stress, and anxiety and were able to take effective action even when they experienced deep emotions when standing up for themselves or others: “I’ve used the verbal boundary setting more times than I can count in the 10 years since I’ve taken the course. Each time I feel nervous—even scared–but each time I’m also surprised by how steady and clear my voice is.” Participants stories also underscored that taking IMPACT wasn’t an end point but a support in continuing to learn and grow: “I first took an IMPACT class at 18 and now 9 years later, I still think about the things I’ve learned everyday. I’m still working on my verbals but I can see how long I’ve come and I’m proud.”

The similarities between those taking the class less than 1 year before and those 9 years or more are striking given the years between them. Not only were the lessons learned similar but also how they used those lessons in their everyday lives. Participants who had completed IMPACT one or more decades ago made it clear that integrating these lessons into their lives was deep and long-lasting.

Discussion

This study addressed a gap in the literature regarding what women remembered and used after completing an IMPACT self-defense program. IMPACT is part of the ESD movement, distinguished by its role-playing scenarios with a defender, an aggressor, and a coach. Students learn and practice a wide range of skills in the scenarios, including full-power physical skills. Survey participants were asked to describe any situation in which they thought of something they learned in IMPACT. This open-ended question provided the possibility of identifying lessons, concepts, and skills that have not already appeared in the literature about ESD in general and IMPACT in particular. I used classic grounded theory to identify themes in participants’ responses.

The majority of survey participants mentioned a skill they had used or recalled after taking an IMPACT program (90%), a feeling they had experienced (60%), and/or a way that IMPACT had influenced what they did in a particular situation or their lives in general (70%). Consistent with prior literature (Crann et al., 2021; Hollander, 2018b; Ullman, 2022), survey participants used multiple skills with varying levels of intensity depending upon their assessment of the aggressiveness of the behavior. The majority of those who described the skills they used avoided or stopped aggressive behavior without making physical contact (97%). Because they interrupted inappropriate behavior sooner rather than later, it is not known whether others’ aggression would have increased. Other research suggests that interrupting male aggression early in an encounter reduces unwanted sexual contact (Hollander, 2014; Senn et al., 2015).

Consistent with prior research on feminist self-defense (Bart & O'Brien, 1985; Crann et al., 2021; Hollander, 2018b; Ullman, 1997, 2007), participants described increased awareness, verbal, and physical skills after completing an IMPACT program and described using these skills singly and in combination. Sometimes they used skills almost simultaneously, that is, being aware of a problem and immediately using their voice with confident, grounded body language, and other times it was a sequential intensification of a response: awareness, then voice, followed by a physical response.

The current study adds to the IMPACT and ESD literature by expanding understanding of the nuances of how women apply self-defense skills in everyday life. Based on participants’ collective descriptions, awareness included noticing one's own physical and emotional state, taking that self-awareness seriously (e.g., “trusting their intuition”), gathering more information, tracking behavior and situations that create unease, and continuing to monitor until in a safe place. Survey participants indicated these awareness skills alerted them to unusual behavior and, for some, prompted their recognition of abusive patterns of behavior. Participants credited their awareness skills with reducing their anxiety and increasing their calmness and freedom of movement.

Survey participants described a variety of ways they had used their voices with familiars and strangers, with peers, and with those who had more or less power. As found in other research (Crann et al., 2021; Hollander, 2018b; Ullman, 1997, 2007), participants reported that assertive and/or forceful verbal strategies were effective in preventing and stopping unacceptable behavior. The specific verbal skills participants highlighted were speaking assertively with no equivocation, repeating a message so there was no ambiguity, and changing the volume of their voice, depending upon the situation, such as lowering their voice to deescalate or raising to underscore their message. Participants emphasized the importance of maintaining a commitment to their own priorities and safety and not being worn down or escalating their response when another person persisted in attempting to derail their safety or priorities. Participants emphasized that knowing how to use their voices had reduced their hesitancy to speak up and increased their effectiveness when they did speak up.

Sexual assault and rape of women are primarily committed by someone known to the person targeted. There is significant evidence that forceful (e.g., kicking, striking) and nonforceful (e.g., leaving a situation, struggling, blocking unwanted touch) physical resistance are effective in avoiding rape (Hollander, 2018b; Ullman, 2007). IMPACT participants learn striking and kicking skills to stop sexual assault and rape, and two survey participants reported using these skills. Consistent with prior research (Crann et al., 2021; Gidycz et al., 2015; Orchowski et al., 2008), most participants described using assertive body language which involved no physical contact but was effective in disrupting inappropriate behavior by strangers as well as by people they knew. The assertive body language highlighted by participants included projecting a grounded and confident body posture, making eye contact, and moving strategically. Participants noted the importance of having practiced these behaviors in realistic scenarios while simultaneously managing their adrenaline.

Consistent with prior research (Hollander, 2018b for a critical overview; Crann et al., 2021), participation in an IMPACT course positively affected participants’ beliefs about themselves, their behavior, and their feelings. In reflecting upon differences between themselves and their experiences prior to IMPACT and after, participants saw themselves as more capable, as having more concrete skills to deal with situations from irritating to life-threatening, and as feeling safer and less anxious. Participants highlighted the value of the messages IMPACT instructors conveyed that supported their courage to stand up for themselves and others: being a target of violence is not their fault, they are worth defending, their opinions matter, and they have choices. Whether taking IMPACT less than 1 year or one or more decades ago, participants said IMPACT was a life-changing event, and the lessons they had learned were now a part of their lives.

This research did not find evidence to support critiques that suggest women's self-defense training is problematic because men intent upon harming women are unstoppable; women with self-defense training will take unnecessary risks or irresponsibly harm others; and women will blame themselves for being attacked or not defending themselves if attacked. Women provided numerous examples of how using their IMPACT skills had stopped others engaging in annoying to life-threatening behavior and challenged expectations of conformity and silence. In situations where they had not been under immediate physical attack, participants described choosing strategies and tools to maximize their safety while minimizing harm to themselves and others. No one blamed themselves for others’ unacceptable behavior, and when fault or blame was raised, they made it clear that their IMPACT experience had helped them resist self-blame.

IMPACT is based on the idea that if individuals practice in an adrenalized state in realistic role-playing scenarios with a trained aggressor and a knowledgeable and supportive coach, observe and cheer other students in scenarios, and give and receive support from peers, they will embody what they have learned. Survey participants’ responses indicated that they had internalized the messages they heard in IMPACT and that they had confidently used the skills they had learned. Their responses also showed that they had a range of skills and they chose skills appropriate to the level of aggression they experienced.

IMPACT, like other ESD programs, is feminism in practice, such as respecting women's life experiences and building upon their strengths; emphasizing the right of women to make choices about their own bodies; viewing sexual violence as a social issue, not an individual problem; and holding perpetrators accountable for rape and sexual abuse. This research showed that women's empowerment resulted within the context of these feminist practices. Women increased power and control over their own lives by becoming stronger, more confident, and more capable of protecting themselves from unacceptable behaviors by familiars and strangers. Further, women's internalization of empowering messages, their embodiment of skills, and their willingness to interrupt intrusive, aggressive, and coercive behavior lasted.

Limitations and Directions for Future Research

The primary limitation was a small mostly homogeneous sample consisting of primarily White heterosexual women without disabilities. Overall, participants were less diverse by gender, race/ethnicity, sexuality, and disability than the demographics of participants in current IMPACT programs. Given the powerful influence of social position on who is targeted for violence, future research efforts need to address the self-defense skills that people use to navigate their lives depending upon their gender, race, sexuality, class, ability, and other social positions as well as under what circumstances people use self-defense skills or intervene as bystanders. Returning to the five people excluded from the analysis points to areas for future research in increasing understanding of similarities and differences across genders. Similar to the 97 women in this study, the five excluded highlighted verbal and assertive body language, and bystander intervention was also notably mentioned. Given the lack of diversity among those whose responses I analyzed, it is important to make systematic efforts to include a diversity of people to deepen understanding of what lessons and skills are most important and how their importance varies across social positions.

The majority of respondents (75.25%; N = 73) expressed gratitude for IMPACT, highly recommend it, or said it was a life-changing experience. Given the outreach through IMPACT organizations’ social media and newsletters, participants were likely those who have continued to follow an organization because of their positive experience. Direct outreach to people who have completed an IMPACT program will increase the possibility of hearing from people with more varied assessments.

People who have survived attempted or completed gender-based violence participate in IMPACT programs, but this survey did not address participants’ prior experiences of violence. Follow-up on feminist resistance training found that survivors were more likely to use strategies they had learned than nonsurvivors (Crann et al., 2021), whereas research on scenario-based training found no differences between survivors and nonsurvivors in self-efficacy, vulnerability, and avoidant behavior at the end of a course and at follow-up (Ozer & Bandura, 1990). Investigating survivors’ application of IMPACT skills should be a priority in future research.

A key component of IMPACT is building a community of support for participants. Hotchkiss et al. (2022) found that students in IMPACT Basics highlighted learning from each other and feeling supported by instructors and their peers. Although there were survey participants who mentioned that support, the survey did not specifically address it. For future research, I recommend systematically gathering information about how support from others affects participants during and after an IMPACT program.

We need more research on what lessons people carry with them from a self-defense program, how these lessons become integrated into their everyday lives, how they change overtime, and how long the lessons last. We need a combination of structured and open-ended questions to maximize our understanding of what people have learned as well as more nuanced questions about how long since participants completed a program and what programs they have taken. We need to know what lessons are similar and different across IMPACT, ESD, and other self-defense programs. For instance, in the IMPACT Basics Course, participants practice in realistic scenarios with professionals in the roles of aggressor and coach. How similar or different are the lessons learned in self-defense programs where people do not practice in realistic scenarios? Or, if they do role-playing, does it make a difference if other students play the roles of aggressor and coach?

The original purpose of the survey was to guide the development of a common set of questions that each IMPACT organization could use in evaluating their program. The results from the survey indicate that to conduct comprehension evaluations of IMPACT and other ESD programs, researchers not only need to address what skills people use in dangerous situations but also how people integrate self-defense skills into their everyday lives. Because of interpersonal and social pressure for women and girls to disregard their own safety and priorities in everyday social situations, common questions should also explore what people say helps them maintain a commitment to themselves in the face of pressure to yield to social expectations.

Conclusion

Learning how to physically defend oneself is a key component of ESD training in general and IMPACT training in particular. For women, to discover that they have the power to stop an attack challenges the idea that aggressors are invincible and that sexual violence is inevitable. The IMPACT role-playing scenarios with padded attackers, a coach, and supportive peers immerse participants in experiencing their own capabilities, aggressors’ vulnerabilities, and a compassionate community. Participants carry the skills they learned in IMPACT with them for not only months but for one, two, and three decades after a course. Contrary to misconceptions that women who learn empowerment self-defense skills will take unnecessary risks or will pick fights, this research revealed that IMPACT participants who have ingrained striking and kicking skills used those skills only when under attack. The awareness, verbal, and physical skills IMPACT-trained women used in real-life situations prevented and interrupted aggressive behavior and did not encourage it. Awareness, setting and maintaining clear boundaries, and assertive body language are important tools for resisting oppression and challenging social injustice.