Association Between Insecure Attachment and ADHD

Abstract

Objective: Psychological theories have postulated an association between insecure attachment and ADHD. The objective of this study is to investigate possible association between insecure attachment and ADHD in children and adults. Method: Review of literature was performed using the PsycINFO, Medline, and EMBASE databases. Results: Twenty-nine studies were included in the review. Overall, the studies showed that parental attachment problems and environmental mediating factors were significantly associated with childhood ADHD. Adults with ADHD had a much higher incidence of insecure attachment styles than reported in the general population. Conclusion: There seems to be a clear association between ADHD and insecure attachment. It is likely that early intervention in the form of parent training and pharmacological treatment may prevent development of attachment problems. But such studies have not been carried out. Furthermore, adults with ADHD might need treatment for their lack of attachment competences as well. More research on this topic is much needed.

Keywords

attachment ADHD treatment

Background

John Bowlby and Mary Ainsworth developed attachment theory based on observations of mother–child interactions (Bowlby, 1958, 1960a, 1960b). Forms of attachment include secure, insecure dismissing, insecure preoccupied, and insecure disorganized (Ainsworth, Blehar, Waters, & Wall, 1978; Main & Solomon, 1990). Bowlby’s theory of attachment has a biological focus, claiming that young children form attachments with their caregivers as a survival instinct, with children seeking out safety from their mothers in stressful situations, such as hunger or fear. Bowlby’s theory also has a developmental aspect with regard to attachment, exploration, and fear factors. The child’s experience with the caretaker triggers the development of internal working models, which reflect the outer lived experiences on an inner level. Experiences in the social environment could create a securely attached child, in whom the majority of internal working models are positive, or an insecurely attached child, in whom the majority of internal working models are negative (Bowlby, 1969).

Securely attached children can use their primary caregivers as a safe base from which they can move out in the world on discovery trips. Later on, these children meet the outside world with positive expectations and trust. An insecurely attached child will have negative expectations of his or her surroundings, and will be troubled by anxiety. It is important to emphasize that problems with attachment competencies can also be caused by inborn constitutional difficulties. In a normal population, 60% of children have secure attachment competencies, whereas among children with ADHD lower than 10% have secure attachment competencies (Shmueli-Goetz, Target, Fonagy, & Datta, 2008; Storebø, Gluud, Winkel, & Simonsen, 2012).

Many psychological theories have claimed an association between attachment insecurity and ADHD (Fonagy, Gergerly, Jurist, & Target, 2012). Franc, Maury, & Purper-Ouakil (2009) conducted a review investigating the association between ADHD and attachment and found that emotional dysregulation is an important feature of both reactive attachment disorder and ADHD. Furthermore, the authors noted that the perinatal period seems to be pivotal in both ADHD and attachment disorders.

Objective

The aim of this study was to explore a possible association between attachment insecurity and ADHD in children and adults.

Method

The PsycINFO, Medline, and EMBASE databases were searched for relevant abstracts using the terms ADHD and attachment, as well as ADHD-related terms such as minimal brain disorder, hyperactivity, and attention deficit disorder (Higgins & Green, 2009). Attachment-related terms included reactive attachment disorder, emotional attachment, empathy, parent–child relationship, and object relations. The complete search strategy is described in detail in the appendix.

Four literature searches were conducted. The first database search (May 2010) resulted in 71 records, 9 of which were relevant; the second search (September 2011) resulted in 159 records, 3 of which were relevant; and the third search (February 2012) resulted in 308 records, 13 of which were relevant. The fourth search (January 2013) resulted in 184 records of which 2 were relevant. Two additional articles were found by hand searching. The articles were considered relevant if they discussed any association between ADHD and attachment disorders. A prerequisite for inclusion was that both wording; ADHD and attachment, or words about possible attachment ADHD mediating factors were used explicitly in the result or discussion section of the study. To improve the overview and clarity, we divided the studies into four groups, looking at the associations: (a) the association between parenting styles/parent insecure attachment competences and child ADHD, (b) the association between child ADHD and child insecure attachment competences, (c) the association between adult ADHD/attachment problems and insecure attachment competences/ADHD symptoms in their parents, (d) the association between adult ADHD and adult insecure attachment competences.

Results

Twenty-nine studies were included in the review, and all except 1 showed a relevant association, as discussed below.

1. The association between parenting styles or insecure parental attachment competencies and childhood ADHD (Audet & Le, 2010; Crittenden & Kulbotten, 2007; Dallos & Smart, 2011; Ellis & Nigg, 2009; Finzi-Dottan, Manor, & Tyano, 2006; Green, Stanley, & Peters, 2007; Johnston, Murray, Hinshaw, Pelham, & Hoza, 2002; Karabekiroglu & Rodopman-Arman, 2011; Kissgen et al., 2009; Lifford, Harold, & Thapar, 2008; Quiroga Garcia & Ibanez Fanes, 2007; Rochford, 2005; Skovgaard, 2010; Guttmann-Steinmetz, Crowell, Doron, & Mikulincer, 2011): Three of the studies in this category were prospective, 10 were retrospective or cross-sectional, and 1 was a case study.

The three prospective studies showed that parental rejection, unresolved maternal mourning, parent–child relational problems, and mother–child attachment problems in early childhood significantly increased the risk for ADHD in school-age children (Lifford et al., 2008; Rochford, 2005; Skovgaard, 2010). Rochford underlined that children with ADHD at an early age are at tremendous risk for developing insecure attachment disorders; early treatment for ADHD symptoms to prevent the development of attachment problems later on in life was recommended (Rochford, 2005).

The 10 retrospective and cross-sectional studies indicated a number of possible predictors of ADHD: mothers experiencing unresolved mourning during pregnancy, maternal and paternal depression, harsh parenting practices, maternal insecure attachment, maternal insecurity, and a high degree of maternal expressed emotion (EE; Audet & Le, 2010; Crittenden & Kulbotten, 2007; Dallos & Smart, 2011; Ellis & Nigg, 2009; Finzi-Dottan et al., 2006; Green et al., 2007; Johnston et al., 2002; Karabekiroglu & Rodopman-Arman, 2011; Kissgen et al., 2009; Quiroga Garcia & Ibanez Fanes, 2007).

Green et al. (2007) found an association between a high degree of maternal EE and ADHD, as well as an association between child attachment representations and a high degree of maternal EE. Johnston et al. (2002) found a correlation between parenting practices and depressive symptoms in the mother, with parenting practices correlated with symptom severity in the child. Maternal depressive symptoms, but not maternal childhood ADHD, were negatively related to responsiveness in interactions with their children. Responsiveness of mothers in interactions with their children was negatively related to maternal reports of their parenting strategies. Childhood conduct problems excluding ADHD symptoms were uniquely and negatively related to maternal responsiveness (Johnston et al., 2002). Karabekiroglu and Rodopman-Arman (2011) found an association between maternal insecure attachment style and severity of hyperactivity in young children; this association was stronger when combined with paternal depression. The researchers found no association between paternal insecure attachment style and hyperactivity in the child. Kissgen et al. (2009) found that prevalence of maternal insecure attachment representations increased with the severity of their children’s ADHD symptoms. Ellis and Nigg (2009) found that low paternal involvement was associated with ADHD regardless of ADHD subtype, while this was not the case with low maternal involvement. Finzi-Dottan et al. (2006) found that parenting styles fostering extreme autonomy were associated with ADHD symptoms, and high levels of emotionality were associated with anxious attachment, while restricted autonomy combined with a high activity level was associated with avoidant attachment. In a study of three matched groups of adopted Romanian orphans with different levels of deprivation, Audet and Le (2010) found that attachment difficulties were negatively predictive of inattention and hyperactivity in children who had experienced less than 19 months of deprivation but unrelated to inattention or overactivity in children who had experienced more than 19 months of deprivation. Based on a single case study, Crittenden and Kulbotten (2007) underlined the hypothesis that ADHD may serve as a self-protective function in families where children feel insecure and unsafe and in which children cannot organize their emotions around a specific danger. Quiroga Garcia and Ibanez Fanes (2007) discovered that children with ADHD and attachment problems had much worse prognosis than those without attachment problems. Guttmann-Steinmetz found that there were significant association between mother’s and children’s secure base scriptedness and non-ADHD children and no such an association existed in an ADHD sample. In the ADHD group, maternal reports of children’s ADHD symptoms were negatively associated with the children’s secure base scriptedness (Guttmann-Steinmetz et al., 2011).

2. The association between childhood ADHD and child insecure attachment competencies (Abrines et al., 2012; Bohlin, Eninger, Brocki, & Thorell, 2012; Clarke, Ungerer, Chahoud, Johnson, & Stiefel, 2002; Fearon & Belsky, 2004; Follan et al., 2011; Li, Xia, & Zhang, 2007; Niederhofer, 2009; Pinto, Turton, Hughes, White, & Gillberg, 2006; Storebø et al., 2012): Green et al.’s (2007) study is also discussed here because this study yielded data suitable for discussing both Groups 1 and 2. Three of the studies in this category were prospective and six were cross-sectional and retrospective. Two prospective studies showed that poorer attention emerged in small children with disorganized attachment, making a clear association between disorganized attachment at an early age and later ADHD symptoms. The studies also demonstrated that disorganized attachment and inhibition were both longitudinally related to ADHD symptoms and externalizing behaviors (Fearon & Belsky, 2004; Pinto et al., 2006). The third prospective study in this group also found a significant association between disorganized attachment and ADHD-behavior, externalizing problem behavior and callous-unemotional traits. Furthermore, they investigated associations with poor inhibition independently and simultaneously with disorganized attachment and found that when it comes to CU-traits disorganized attachment contributes beyond poor inhibition (Bohlin et al., 2012).

The six retrospective/cross-sectional studies demonstrated that insecure attachment competencies in children are clearly associated with childhood ADHD. Li et al. (2007) found that attachment security in children with ADHD was significantly lower than in controls. In the Social Skills Training and Attachment (SOSTRA) trial, all the children (n = 56) were interviewed at entry using the Child Attachment Interview (CAI). Results indicated that 93% of the children had some type of insecure attachment, leaving only 7% of the children with secure attachment competencies (Storebø et al., 2012). Clarke et al. (2002) found that attachment insecurities in children with ADHD featured heightened emotional expression and out-of-control affect. Based on these findings, the authors argue that treatment for ADHD must incorporate relationship-building components. Green et al. (2007) investigated the relationship between child attachment representations, psychopathology, and atypical maternal parenting in a high-risk sample. They found that a diagnosis of ADHD was associated with higher levels of attachment disorganization, but that ADHD symptoms alone did not account for the high levels of disorganized attachment in the sample, with more than 50% of the disorganized children not diagnosed with ADHD. The study did find, however, that attachment disorganization was associated with high maternal EE. Very high maternal EE was associated with severe pervasive disorganization of attachment in the child. Low maternal EE was associated with less child symptomology and better child attachment organization (Green et al., 2007). Niederhofer (2009) assessed children with ADHD-like symptoms, and found that, of 79 children with insecure attachment competencies, 72 showed ADHD-like symptoms, whereas only 5 of the 22 children with secure attachment competencies showed such symptoms. In a study by Abrines et al. (2012), it was noted that children with a secure attachment showed significantly less attention problems.

In the study conducted by Follan et al. (2011), the investigators tried to determine whether it was possible to discriminate between children with ADHD and children with reactive attachment disorder. The study concluded that it is possible to clearly discriminate between the two syndromes.

3. The association between adult ADHD or attachment problems and insecure attachment competencies and ADHD symptoms in their parents (Brown, 2004; Edel, Juckel, & Brune, 2010; Miller, 2003): All three studies were retrospective/cross-sectional studies. Miller (2003) suggested that some child-rearing practices may be an important risk factor for ADHD. Brown (2004) found a high incidence of child abuse in the childhoods of adults with ADHD, making abuse a statistically significant predictor of attachment style. There was also a significantly higher incidence of insecure attachment competencies in the sample than is reported in the general population. Edel, Juckel, and Brune (2010) found that adults who recalled ADHD symptoms in their own parents were more likely to be experiencing attachment problems in their current partnerships. This was especially true when the mothers of adult patients with ADHD exhibited ADHD symptoms.

4. The association between adult ADHD and adult insecure attachment competencies (Abdel-Hamid et al., 2011; Mccoy, 2004; Pazvantoglu et al., 2011): Three retrospective/cross-sectional studies found that adults with ADHD had much higher incidences of insecure attachment styles than is reported in the general population. Abdel-Hamid et al., (2011) also found that adults with ADHD had a significantly reduced quality of relationships, with the patients feeling less romantic love and more fear of attachment and intimacy as compared with healthy controls. The authors underlined the necessity for attending to these problems in psychotherapy with adults with ADHD. Pazvantoglu et al. (2011) found that adults diagnosed with ADHD had a higher rate of insecure attachment style (Pazvantoglu et al., 2011), and McCoy (2004) found a significant association between ADHD and insecure relationship style.

Table 1.

The Association Between Parenting Styles or Insecure Parental Attachment Competencies and Childhood ADHD.

First author	Article title	Year	Location	n	Design and sample source	Methods and measures
Lifford	Parent–child relationships and ADHD symptoms: A longitudinal analysis	2007	United Kingdom	194	Prospective	• Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) • Child’s Report of Parental Behavior Inventory (CRPBI)
Rochford	Attending to attachment: The relation between ADHD and mother–child attachment in early childhood.	2005	United States	98	Prospective	• Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children (DISC) • ADHD-Rating Scale (ADHD-RS) • Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC) • Symptom Checklist 90- Revised (SCL-R) • Adult ADHD-Rating Scale-IV (ADHD-RS) • Attachment Q-sort • Separation Anxiety Test
Skovgaard	Mental health problems and psychopathology in infancy and early childhood	2010	Denmark	6090	Cohort and Prospective	• Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) • Bayley’s Scale of Infant Development (BSID) • Parent–Child Early Relational Assessment (PC-ERA) • Diagnostic Classification Zero to Three • Checklist for Autism in Toddlers (CHAT) • The Infant Toddler Symptom Checklist (ITSCL) • Mannheim Interview (MEI)
Karabekiroglu	Parental attachment style and severity of emotional/behavioural problems in toddlerhood	2010	Turkey	103	Cross-sectional	• Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV-TR (SCID) • Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) • Adult Attachment Scale (AAS) • Instruments for Toddlers • Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL)
Dallos	An exploration of family dynamics and attachment strategies in a family with ADHD/conduct problems.	2010	United Kingdom	15	Case studies	• Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) • Transition to Adult Attachment Interview (TAAI) • Qualitative Interview • Joint Family Interviews
Ellis	Parenting practices and ADHD: New findings suggest partial specificity of effects	2008	United States	181	Cross-sectional	• The Attachment Security Scale (ASS)
Audet	Mitigating effects of the adoptive caregiving environment on inattention/overactivity in children adopted from Romanian orphanages	2010	Canada	142	Cross-sectional	• Child Behavior Checklist/4-18 (CBCL) • Preschool Behavior Questionnaire (PBQ) • Home Observation for Measurement of the Environment (HOME) • Parent Interaction Style
Crittenden PM and Kulbotten	Familial contributions to ADHD: An attachment perspective	2007	United States/Norway	1	Case study	• Dynamic Maturational Model (DMM) • Adult Attachment Interview (AAI)
Kissgen	Attachment representation in mothers of children with ADHD	2009	Germany	51	Cross-sectional	• Diagnostik-System für psychische Störungen im Kindes-und Jugendalter nach ICD-10 und DSM-IV (DISYPS-KJ) • Adult Attachment Projective (AAP)
Guttmann-Steinmetz	Associations between mothers’ and children’s secure base scripts in ADHD and community cohorts	2011	United States	79	Cross-sectional	• Attachment Script Representation Task (ASRT) • Attachment Story Completion Task (ASCT)
Quiroga	Attachment and hyperactivity: An exploratory study of the mother	2007	Spain	34	Cross-sectional	• Attachment Story Completion Task (ASCT)
Johnston	Responsiveness in interactions of mothers and sons with ADHD: relations to maternal and child characteristics	2002	Canada and United States	136	Cross-sectional	• Clinical interview • Observation from videotaped interactions
Green	Disorganized attachment representation and atypical parenting in young school-age children with externalizing disorder	2007	United Kingdom	69	Cross-sectional	• Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory (ECBI) • Manchester Child Attachment Story Task (MCAST) • Atypical Parenting/Expressed Emotions • Beck Depression Inventory (BDI)
Finzi-Dottan	ADHD, temperament, and parental style as predictors of the child’s attachment patterns	2006	Israel	65	Cross-sectional	• Dimension of Temperament Survey for Children (DOTS) • Children’s Attachment Style Classification Questionnaire (ASCQ)

Table 2.

The Association Between Childhood ADHD and Child Insecure Attachment Competencies.

First author	Article title	Year	Location	n	Design and sample source	Methods and measures
Fearon	Attachment and Attention: Protection in Relation to Gender and Cumulative Social-Contextual Adversity.	2004	United Kingdom	918	Prospective	• The Strange Situation Procedure (SSP) • Continuous Performance Test (CPT) • CBCL • Child Behavioral Questionnaire (CBQ) • Infant Temperament Questionnaire (ITQ)
Bohlin	Disorganized Attachment and Inhibitory Capacity: Predicting Externalizing Problem Behaviors	2012	Sweden	65	Prospective	• CPT • Preschool Behavior Questionnaires (PBQ) • CBQ • Attachment Doll play Classification System (ADCS)
Pinto	ADHD and infant disorganized attachment. A prospective study of children next-born after stillbirth	2006	United Kingdom and Sweden	53	Prospective	• Structured clinical interview for DSM-IV (SCID) • Antenatal assessment of maternal unresolved mourning • SSP • Wender Utah Rating Scale (WURS) • ADHD-Rating Scale (ADHD-RS)
Follan	Discrimination between attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and reactive attachment disorder in school aged children	2010	United Kingdom	107	Cross-sectional	• Clinical assessment • Semistructured interview with parents • Waiting room observation • Relationship Problems Scale (RPS)
Abrines	ADHD-like symptoms and attachment in internationally adopted children	2012	Spain	58	Cross-sectional	• Friends and Family Interview (FFI)
Niederhofer	Attachment as a component of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder	2009	Italy	101	Cross-sectional	• Hyperscheme (ADHD) • Parent/Child Reunion Inventory
Clarke	Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder is associated with attachment insecurity	2002	Australia	38	Cross-sectional	• Demographic interview • Revised Conners’ Parent Rating Scale (CPR) • Separation Anxiety Test • Self-interview • Family drawing
Li	A random control study on the attachment of children with attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder	2007	China	89	Cross-sectional	• The Attachment Security Scale (ASS)
Storebø	Social-skills and Parental Training plus Standard Treatment versus Standard Treatment for Children with ADHD-The Randomized SOSTRA Trial.	2012	Denmark	56	RCT (Cross-sectional)	• Conners ADHD 3 • Conners Comprehensive Behavior Rating Scale (CBRS) • Schedule for Affective Disorders and Schizophrenia (K-SADS)

Table 3.

The Association Between Adult ADHD or Attachment Problems and Insecure Attachment Competencies and ADHD Symptoms in Their Parents.

First author	Article title	Year	Location	n	Design and sample source	Methods and measures
Edel	Interaction of recalled parental ADHD symptoms and rearing behavior with current attachment and emotional dysfunction in adult offspring with ADHD	2010	Germany	73	Cross-sectional	• Diagnosis of ADHD–DSM-IV • Questionnaire of Recalled Parental Rearing Behavior (QRPRB) • Relationship-Specific Attachment Scale for Adults (RASA) • Adult Attachment Scale (AAS) • Experience of Emotions Scale (EES)
Miller	Early attachment and ADHD in adult woman	2003	United States	51	Cross-sectional	• Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) • Attention Deficits Scales for Adults (ADSA)
Brown	Attachment and attributional styles in men and women with symptoms of ADHD	2004	Canada	100	Cross-sectional, retrospective	• Self-reported measures of attachment style etc.

Table 4.

The Association Between Adult ADHD and Adult Insecure Attachment Competencies.

First author	Article title	Year	Location	n	Design and sample source	Methods and measures
Pazvantoglu	The relationship of adult ADHD and attachment style	2011	Turkey	254	Cross-sectional, retrospective	• Wender Utah Rating Scale (WURS) • Adult ADHD Self-Report Scale (ASRS)
McCoy	The relationship between adult ADHD and romantic attachment style.	2004	United States	40	Cross-sectional, retrospective	• Multi-Item Measure of Adult Romantic Attachment
Abdel-Hamid	Attachment in adult patients with ADHD (conference abstract)	2010	Germany	39	Cross-sectional, retrospective	• Self-estimation measures to measure attachment, etc.

Discussion

This review demonstrated the associations between parental attachment problems, and childhood ADHD. In these factors such as problems in the parent–child relationship, unresolved maternal mourning, maternal/parental depressive symptoms, inconsistent or rejecting parenting styles were identified. Furthermore, small children with disorganized attachment tend to have poorer attention, and there is a clear connection between disorganized attachment and ADHD symptoms and externalizing behaviors. Studies indicate associations between parent and child attachment competencies and childhood ADHD, adult attachment competencies and adult ADHD, and adult ADHD and insecure attachment competencies in those adults’ parents.

Some of the studies revealed an association between maternal EE and both child ADHD and child attachment representations. One study found a possible association between unresolved maternal mourning during pregnancy and child ADHD. In another study, attachment insecurity in children with ADHD was expressed through heightened emotional expression. Unregulated emotions seemed to play a part in some of the other studies, as depressive symptoms both in mothers and fathers were associated with ADHD symptoms in the children.

These findings are important in identifying the causes of ADHD symptoms and designing effective treatment. In the SOSTRA trial, the results indicated that 93% of the children had some type of insecure attachment so it seems to be very common. Attachment competencies are important in many areas of life, and the lack of these skills can ultimately result in complicated problems and comorbid disorders. Children and adults with ADHD may require treatment addressing attachment problems and emotional dysregulation. Given the focus on behavioral symptoms in ADHD diagnosis, it is possible that some children have ADHD stemming more from attachment difficulties than from innate neuropsychological differences; in “core” ADHD, genetic factors account for much of the variance, but in “symptomatic” ADHD, attachment factors may play a greater role in the etiology. It is not possible to know whether attachment problems definitely lead to ADHD, or ADHD leads to attachment problems. They seem to be mutual risk factors; when one of the conditions occurs, there is an increased risk of developing the other. Therefore, treatment for ADHD symptoms at an early age may prevent the development of attachment problems. There is also a need for a more broad approach when assessing children with ADHD in which the families’ strengths and weaknesses are evaluated. For instance, one should consider using complementary assessment of the parental attachment representations (using, for example, the Adult Attachment Interview), parental mental state, and social support, as well as direct observations of the parent–child interaction. This broader assessment could give a better understanding of the family dynamics that influence the pathogenesis of ADHD and also be the basis of a family intervention with the focus on improving the relationship between parent and child. The review points to a clear correlation between characteristics in the parents and the parents’ resources and symptom severity in the child. Future research should be oriented toward the whole family. In regard to treatment and prevention, future interventions should include the concept of “resilience” in further research. Resilience is competence in the presence of significant stressors. The studies of this review provide interesting perspectives in relation to research into resilience of the family system.

Conclusion

There are clear associations between ADHD and insecure attachment competencies. They are mutual risk factors; when one of the conditions occurs there is an increased risk for developing the other. Possible effective treatments might focus on the attachment and emotional dysregulation problems in children with both ADHD and attachment problems. Treatments focusing on the parent–child relationship may prevent the development of one or both disorders. Early treatment for ADHD symptoms in children may also help them to avoid developing attachment problems. Furthermore, adults with ADHD might need treatment for their lack of attachment competences as well. However, more research on this topic is much needed.

Footnotes

Appendix

Acknowledgements

Many thanks to research librarian Trine Lacoppidan Kæstel for her help with the database searches.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author Biographies

Ole Jakob Storebø, PhD, is a clinical psychologist and senior researcher at Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Department and Psychiatric Research Unit, Region Zealand

Pernille Darling Rasmussen, MD, is a PhD student at Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Department, Region Zealand

Erik Simonsen, MD, PhD, Dr.h.c., is professor at Roskilde University and Head of Psychiatric Research Unit, Region Zealand.

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