Abstract
Background. Latino grandparents are often involved in rearing of grandchildren. However, their roles in promoting Latino children’s leisure time physical activity (LTPA) have been largely overlooked by researchers. Aim. The purpose of this study is to examine Latino grandparents’ involvement in and support for grandchildren’s (age 2-12) LTPA as well as issues facing Latino grandparents. Method. Participants included 53 Latino grandparents who lived with/cared for or used to live with/care for grandchildren of 2 to 12 years old in three low-income areas of Los Angeles County. Data were collected using 4 semistructured focus groups and 26 semistructured interviews. Transcribed data were systematically and iteratively coded and analyzed. Results. Latino grandparents perceived various benefits of physical activity to their grandchildren’s physical and mental health, and supported grandchildren’s LTPA directly and indirectly. The direct support included doing physical activity with grandchildren, taking grandchildren to places for physical activities, verbally asking grandchildren to do physical activities, and rewarding grandchildren for doing physical activities. The indirect support was made through providing suggestions to parents. Mothers usually regulated Latino grandparents’ involvement in or support for grandchildren’s LTPA and tended to promote a maternal lineage. Some Latino grandparents reported barriers to supporting grandchildren’s LTPA, including lack of information, access to affordable and safe LTPA facilities/programs, transportation, money, and time. Conclusions. Latino grandparents are advocates for grandchildren’s LTPA and support grandchildren’s LTPA directly and indirectly. It may be promising to develop interventions to increase Latino grandparents’ competency in supporting grandchildren’s LTPA.
Physical activity prevents diseases and promotes healthy development for children (Bingham et al., 2016) and is particularly important to Latino American children who have a high rate of obesity (Ogden, Carroll, Kit, & Flegal, 2014). In childhood, physical activity is typically associated with play and recreation, often facilitated and/or supervised by family members, such as parents. Thus, family support is crucial to children’s participation in physical activities during leisure time (Berge, Wall, Larson, Loth, & Neumark-Sztainer, 2013). For many Latino children, family support comes not only from parents but also from grandparents (Aranda & Miranda, 1997). In general, Latino Americans have a familism culture and maintain a close-knit family structure where grandparents are often involved in rearing of grandchildren (Carrillo, 2002; C. B. Cox, Brooks, & Valcarcel, 2000). In the United States, there are 1.8 million Latino grandparents living with grandchildren younger than 18 years old (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010), and a large number of Latino grandparents live close to and provide part-time caregiving to grandchildren (Coles, 2006).
Researchers have started examining grandchildren rearing in relation to childhood obesity, and the results showed variation across ethnicities/countries (e.g., Pearce et al., 2010; Pulgarón, Patiño-Fernández, Sanchez, Carrillo, & Delamater, 2013; Sata et al., 2015). Studies in Western European and Asian countries reported grandparental care was associated with higher body mass index (BMI) or obesity/overweight risk for children compared to parental care (Lin, Leung, Hui, Lam, & Schooling, 2011; Pearce et al., 2010; Sata et al., 2015). In contrast, analyses using Latino American samples showed that children cared for by grandparents had similar or reduced BMI or obesity/overweight risk than children not cared for by grandparents (Pulgarón et al., 2013) or children cared for by parents (Maher, Li, Carter, & Johnson, 2008).
Although these studies begin to provide information about how grandparents’ involvement in grandchildren’s lives is associated with childhood obesity/overweight risk, most have focused on grandparents’ impact on children’s diet or eating behaviors (e.g., Li, Adab, & Cheng, 2015; Pearce et al., 2010), overlooking grandparents’ influence on children’s physical activity. Thus, despite Latino grandparents’ substantial involvement in grandchildren rearing and potential importance in childhood obesity prevention, there is limited understanding of their roles in grandchildren’s physical activity.
To address this gap, we conducted a qualitative study to examine Latino grandparents’ involvement in and support for young (age 2-12) grandchildren’s leisure time physical activity (LTPA). The age range 2 to 12 was chosen for two reasons. First, it is a period when children’s physical activity levels have not yet started declining dramatically (Sallis, 2000) and covers a critical stage for obesity prevention (Cunningham, Kramer, & Narayan, 2014; Dietz, 1994). Second, grandparents’ involvement in a grandchild’s life tends to decline over time (Creasey & Kaliher, 1994; Davey, Savla, Janke, & Anderson, 2009). Furthermore, according to our pilot interviews with a few Latino grandparents, age 2 to 12 is typically when Latino grandparents can substantially influence grandchildren. We focused on noncustodial Latino grandparents who share responsibilities with parent(s) in child rearing because noncustodial grandparenting is common among Latino American families (C. B. Cox et al., 2000) and appears to be more normative than custodial grandparenting (Goodman & Silverstein, 2002).
To understand grandparents’ involvement in grandchildren’s LTPA in an extended family system like Latino families, one needs to examine the interaction not only between grandparents and grandchildren but also between grandparents and parents (M. J. Cox & Paley, 1997; Goodman, 2007; Mueller & Elder, 2003). Therefore, the research questions that guided our study are as follows.
Method
Study Design
A qualitative research design combining semistructured focus groups and interviews was used. Combining both methods contributed to a broader conceptualization and more comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon through triangulation, in addition to providing flexibility for participants (Adami, 2005; Lambert & Loiselle, 2008; Michell, 1999; Morse, 2002). For each topical area, general questions (e.g., What concerns do you think grandparents have about helping their grandchildren to be physically active?) were asked before specific questions (e.g., Are there any concerns about places where your grandchildren do physical activity? Krueger & Casey, 2000). All questions were translated from English to Spanish by bilingual researchers who had experiences working with Latino population (Zambrana, 1991). Two other bilingual researchers then reviewed the translations to ensure that the questions were culturally relevant and valid.
Study Sample
The study was approved by the institutional review board of the study-affiliated university. Participants included 53 Latino grandparents who lived with/cared for or used to live with/care for grandchildren of 2 to 12 years old in three low-income areas of Los Angeles County. In the sampling areas, approximately 19% to 32% of the population live below the poverty level and the majority of the Latinos are of Mexican origin. Participants were recruited onsite from local churches, schools, a park, and a senior center and through word-of-mouth referral with the assistance of organization/community gatekeepers (e.g., school administrators, church pastors). The majority of the participants were grandmothers (81.1%), were 40 to 70 years old (83.7%), and spoke only Spanish (77.1%). On average, the participants had 2.8 grandchildren (age 2-12) in Los Angeles County, and 48.9% of grandparents lived with at least one grandchild (Table 1). Participants provided information for up to five grandchildren. The focal grandchildren in this study were balanced in terms of gender (46.4% females) and age distribution, with the majority (78.3%) living with both parents (Table 2).
Participants’ Profile.
Participants’ Grandchildren’s Profile.
Data Collection and Analysis
All participants completed the informed consent prior to the focus group or interview. We provided a $40 gift card to each participant as an incentive. Four focus groups (3 grandmothers groups [n = 5, 8, 9] and 1 grandfathers group [n = 5]) and 26 interviews, each lasting approximately 30 to 60 minutes, were conducted in Spanish between May 2014 and July 2016. Trained bilingual researchers who had experiences working with Latino population conducted the interviews. Three focus groups were held at a senior center, and one at a school. Interviews were conducted in public places or participants’ homes. Only researchers and participants were present during the focus groups and most of the interviews. In a small number of interviews, participants’ family member(s) were at the interview location (e.g., participant’s home). Focus groups and interviews were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim, and then translated back to English by bilingual researchers.
Following a grounded theory approach (Strauss & Corbin, 1998), one researcher coded data into themes using NVivo 10 and two other researchers reviewed the codes. Codes were refined through an iterative process, involving an initial microanalysis followed by expansion, reorganization, and merging of codes. Data analysis, lasting from October 2014 to November 2016, was performed periodically as new data were collected (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Data collection ended when no new codes emerged from the data (i.e., theoretical saturation; Strauss & Corbin, 1998). Collaboratively three researchers finalized the codes. See Appendix for quotes from interviews and focus groups.
Results
Involvement in Grandchildren Rearing
Many participants regularly took care of grandchildren because the parent(s) worked for long hours, the parent(s) had irregular schedules, or one of the parents was not available. The participants varied in the amount of time with their grandchildren. Some spent a few hours each week with the grandchildren, while others were with the grandchildren almost every day. Most participants believed that they had influenced and would like to influence their grandchildren further in the future. The grandparents who spent more time with their grandchildren tended to have a closer relationship with and a stronger influence on the grandchildren. Furthermore, some participants believed that they had more control and influence on their grandchildren when the parents were not present.
In most cases, parents, particularly mothers, influenced Latino grandparents’ involvement with grandchildren. Consistent with previous studies (Chan & Elder, 2000; Uhlenberg & Hammill, 1998), maternal grandparents tended to maintain a closer relationship with the grandchildren due to their ties with the mother, showing a matrilineal advantage. When being asked about the involvement with grandchildren, the participants mentioned maternal grandchildren much more frequently than paternal grandchildren. When it comes to paternal grandchildren, however, the participants often described negative experiences with the daughters-in-law. For example, a grandmother said,
When you’re dealing with your son’s children, it’s a lot harder to deal with because the mother gets very involved or even defensive because it’s her daughter. She’ll say things like “She’s not your daughter; or she’s not this she’s not that” and it’s better not to get involved with the daughter-in-law.
Most participants felt responsible for supporting the grandchildren and parents, although in general they thought it was ultimately the parents’ obligation to raise and educate the children and levels of perceived responsibility varied across the participants. For example, one grandmother perceived a great deal of responsibility for her granddaughter and felt that she worried more for her granddaughter than when she had her own children. Another grandmother took care of her grandson when her daughter was at work but gave up the responsibility after her daughter got home from work.
The majority of the grandparents experienced disagreements with parents, which usually occurred when the grandparents were trying to offer opinions or enact ideas different from the parents’ perspectives. When a disagreement arose, many participants expressed difficulty having constructive conversations with the parents and chose to defer to the parents’ authority, although a few chose to confront the parents. In fact, some participants purposely reduced their involvement in certain issues to avoid disagreement/conflicts with the parents. Compared to grandmothers, grandfathers seemed less inclined to involve themselves in potentially conflicting issues.
Perceptions of LTPA for Children: Benefits, Gender, and Use of Screen-Based Media
Participants’ description of grandchildren’s LPTA were somewhat varied. Nevertheless, the main topics expressed focused on benefits of LPTA, the role of gender, and concerns with grandchildren’s use of screen-based media.
Benefits
There was a consistent understanding among participants that children should do LTPA because of the various benefits of physical activities to children’s physical health (e.g., lower risk for obesity and better body growth) and mental health (e.g., increased psychological well-being and better social skills). Many believed that engaging children in physical activities such as sports would keep them away from substance abuse and negative peer influence. In addition, a few grandmothers said it was easier to take care of their grandchildren after the grandchildren got tired from doing physical activities. Participants typically associated children’s LTPA with play, recreation, and sports in outdoor settings such as parks. However, they generally did not have much scientific knowledge on physical activities for children and were mostly guided by their own experiences with children.
Gender
Most participants indicated that no or few gender differences existed in children’s physical activities; they observed that girls and boys participated in or had opportunities to participate in the same physical activities. However, many participants observed that in the past girls were not expected to do as much physical activities as boys and were expected to do in different physical activities than boys. Although most participants generally accepted the idea of gender equality in children’s physical activities, a few comments still reflected gender stereotypes. For example, a grandmother said,
Well the young girls would go to cheerleading practice because they were all girls, but for the boys, we would take them to play soccer, football, or baseball.
Use of Screen-Based Media
Participants indicated that children spend excessive amounts of time with various screens (e.g., TV, video games, and tablets), which prevented or distracted them from being physically active. Almost all grandmothers held a strong negative attitude toward children’s use of screen-based media, and some expressed concerns with the negative impact of those media on children’s social-emotional development. Latino grandfathers also acknowledged the prevalent use of screen-based media among children and its negative impact on LTPA. However, their criticism did not appear to be as strong as the grandmothers’ opinions. Some grandfathers were even amazed that their grandchildren were capable of using those technologies at a young age.
Support for Grandchildren’s LTPA
Many participants mentioned that parents did not devote enough time to children’s LTPA due to lack of time, energy, and motivation. The participants directly and indirectly supported their grandchildren’s LTPA. The direct support was made through interaction with the grandchildren, while the indirect support was provided through interaction with the parent(s).
Direct Support
Grandparents used a number of strategies to encourage their grandchildren do or do more LTPA. They took grandchildren to physical activity places (e.g., parks) and/or did physical activities (e.g., dancing, walking, jogging) together with grandchildren. Most participants described role modeling as the most effective strategy to increase grandchildren’s LTPA. For example, a grandfather said,
Our grandchildren see that we are also active. Every time we run in the treadmill they will run too, we influence their activity.
Grandparents also asked or urged their grandchildren to do LTPA. However, according to some participants, this strategy did not work well for grandchildren with limited interest in LTPA. Some participants used tangible rewards (e.g., a dollar, ice cream) to motivate children to do LTPA or do better in LTPA. For example, a grandmother said,
Mine [grandson] is good at just sitting down and playing video games . . . That’s why I promise him different things, just to get him outside of the house and away from those video games.
Only a few participants mentioned providing grandchildren encouragement and positive feedback. Furthermore, some participants appeared to be lacking effective strategies on modifying grandchildren’s sedentary behavior. For example, a grandmother said,
No one is there to motivate them. Sometimes, I try to motivate them, but it doesn’t always work. Because they (are in) some sort of role while playing a video game and they don’t want to stop playing.
Indirect Support
Grandparents seemed to influence grandchildren’s LTPA indirectly by communicating with the parents. The majority of the participants talked with the parents about their grandchildren’s health and growth on a regular basis. For example, many participants asked the parents to take grandchildren to the park, do physical activities together with grandchildren, or sign up their grandchildren for certain sports programs.
Some participants reported disagreements with parents regarding grandchildren’s LTPA. For example, some grandparents felt parents sometimes were over protective of children or overconcerned with the safety/injury issues related to LTPA. Others disagreed with parents on enrolling children in sports/recreation programs against children’s will/interests. Although the majority of the grandparents deferred to parents’ decisions, some chose to go their own way. For example, one grandmother said,
My husband and I did [referring to letting the grandson play in the park]. He loved it, but he would come home with dirt on his clothes and my daughter didn’t like it. So I would bring him back home to shower and change him so that when my daughter got home, she wouldn’t notice. When they moved to their own place, he gained 35 pounds because he was no longer having any physical activities . . . The doctor told my daughter that he is now overweight.
Barriers to Supporting Grandchildren’s LTPA
Grandparents faced barriers to supporting grandchildren’s LTPA such as lack of affordable and safe facilities/programs for children in local communities and lack of information. Some were concerned with crowding or poor maintenance at local parks, others expressed need for facilities/programs that could be enjoyed by both grandparents and grandchildren. Other barriers included lack of transportation, finance, energy, and time. Some grandparents found it difficult to take their grandchildren to distant locations because they did not have a car or were unable to drive, while others could not afford enrolling children in paid programs. In addition, a few participants felt it was somewhat challenging to keep pace with their grandchildren during LTPA due to their own old age. Finally, time was an issue for some grandparents who worked full-time and/or (mostly grandmothers) had housekeeping responsibilities.
Discussion
Findings suggest that Latino grandparents had a very positive perception of physical activities for children and supported grandchildren’s LTPA directly (e.g., doing LTPA with grandchildren) and indirectly (e.g., making suggestions to parents). Most grandparents in this study felt LTPA was very important for their grandchildren and wanted to facilitate and support this type of activity.
Interrelationships between Latino grandparents, parents, and grandchildren played an important role in shaping grandparents’ involvement in and support for grandchildren’s LTPA. Consistent with previous studies with other ethnicities (Chan & Elder, 2000; Uhlenberg & Hammill, 1998), we found that mothers tended to regulate the interaction between Latino grandparents and grandchildren, promoting matrilineal relationships. In the same vein, we found some grandparents voiced concern that their daughters-in-law were not very positive about their suggestions regarding their grandchildren. Therefore, further research regarding the role of parents as gatekeepers of the grandparent–grandchild relationship (e.g., Mueller & Elder, 2003) may contribute to suggesting ways that Latino grandparents can be productively involved in the grandchildren’s LTPA.
Findings also suggest that future research should further investigate Latino grandparents’ interaction with parents and grandchildren. Different parenting styles between grandparents and parents (Blackwelder & Passman, 1986) and the inability to collaborate effectively may affect levels of LTPA among children. Pulgarón et al. (2013) found that Latino parents’ reported disagreement with grandparents in child rearing was positively associated with children’s BMI. This fit with information provided by some grandparents in our study; Latino grandparents who had disagreement with parents were less likely to be involved in grandchildren’s life in general and support grandchildren’s LTPA. We also found that although many grandparents used role modeling to promote grandchildren’s LTPA, they appeared less capable of modifying grandchildren’s sedentary behaviors through verbal communication. In addition, some Latino grandparents’ use of unhealthy food (e.g., ice cream) as incentive for children to do LTPA may be concerning as it may encourage unhealthy eating among children.
The role of acculturation might be a fruitful line of inquiry with regard to grandparents’ support for grandchildrens’ LTPA. Studies found acculturation level was negatively associated with physical activity among Latino Americans (Joseph, Benitez, Ainsworth, Todd & Keller, 2017; Singh, Yu, Siahpush, & Kogan, 2008; Unger et al., 2004). Latino grandparents’ positive attitude toward physical activity may be related to their active lifestyle in their native countries, where physical activity may have been a more salient and pervasive expectation (Sussner, Lindsay, Greaney, & Peterson, 2008). In our study, some participants recalled that when they were young they did not have TV and used to do a lot of physical activities and outdoor recreation/play.
Finally, considering that Latino adult males did more physical activity than females and engage in different types of physical activities than females (Lòpez & Yamashita, 2017; Marquez & McAuley, 2006), we were surprised that a majority of our participants did not believe gender play a major role in children’s LTPA. This could be because gender roles affecting physical activity participation are not assigned to Latino children until they reach an older age (e.g., late adolescence). Acculturation and education levels of grandparents may also play a role in perceptions of gender differences (Eagley, 1987; Lòpez & Yamashita, 2017).
Limitations
Limitations must be considered in interpreting the results. First, despite the diversity among Latinos from different regions, grandparents from the areas we sampled predominantly consisted of Latino immigrants from Mexico. Therefore, the study findings may not fully apply to Latinos from other regions. Second, to avoid participant discomfort, we collected limited background information, which restricted our ability to explore group differences within our sample. Third, we collected data from grandparents, missing the perspectives of parents and grandchildren that could triangulate our findings. Despite these limitations, this study contributes to the Latino health and obesity prevention literature by examining Latino grandparents’ involvement in and support for grandchildren’s LTPA, an important but understudied topic. In addition to implications for intervention efforts, findings provide direction for future quantitative inquiries. For example, researchers may examine if Latino children cared for by both parents and grandparents participate in more LTPA than those cared for by parents only, and if the impact of Latino grandparents is moderated by their acculturation level. A combination of qualitative and quantitative data, using objective measures of LPTA, will offer a better understanding of Latino grandparents’ roles and impacts.
Implication for Practice
Latino grandparents have the potential to help parents promote young Latino children’s LTPA. Because they may lack certain skills or information to be effective, interventions to help Latino grandparents become more adept in supporting grandchildren’s LTPA may be promising. Interventions could provide Latino grandparents information about physical activity benefits and requirements for children and resources in local and neighborhood communities. Intergenerational physical activity programs for Latino grandparents and grandchildren to participate together may also promote LTPA. Finally, interventions that focus on improving communication and collaboration between parents and grandparents around promoting children’s LTPA may be effective.
Footnotes
Appendix
Quotes From Interviews and Focus Groups.
| Involvement in grandchildren rearing |
| Strong responsibility |
| Quote 1 (Grandmother): In my case with my granddaughter who is very close to me, I tell her: “Don’t do this, this you can” and I feel that my responsibility is so big that I worry more for them than when I had my children. |
| Bounded responsibility |
| Quote 2 (Grandmother): With my daughter, I don’t think it’s our responsibility. We can give them good advice on how to raise them differently than how they were raised, or how we were raised . . . And I tell my daughter “The boy is your son, not mine, but I will help take care of him because I want you to overcome your obstacles, work hard, and study so that you can do something with your life.” Once she gets off work, “Here’s your son.” I’m not going to take care of your son so that you can go out and party or for this and that, no. He’s your son, he’s your responsibility. |
| Disagreement/conflict with parents: Confrontation |
| Quote 3 (Grandmother): I would! If they [parents] would let me, but they don’t. My husband says that it’s not my responsibility. He says, “It’s the child’s parents’ responsibility. If the child was parentless, then it would be your responsibility. But it’s not. Don’t get involved. They’ll say that you’re butting in and that will cause problems later on for the family.” But when my granddaughter comes and eats at our house with her mom, I tell her in front of her mother than she is not to eat this or that. I don’t care what her mother thinks. I tell what she should eat and what she shouldn’t eat. Because then she’ll learn what she should and shouldn’t eat. |
| Disagreement/conflict with parents: Preemptive retreat |
| Quote 4 (Grandmother): When you’re dealing with your son’s children, it’s a lot harder to deal with because the mother gets very involved or even defensive because it’s her daughter. She’ll say things like “She’s not your daughter; or she’s not this she’s not that” and it’s better not to get involved with the daughter-in-law. |
| Perceptions of LTPA for children: benefits, gender, and use of screen-based media |
| Perceived benefits of LTPA |
| Quote 5 (Grandmother): Oh many benefits, because there are a lot of kids who do not do any physical activities and all they do is sit down and eat so their end result is them gaining weight and becoming overweight or obese. |
| Quote 6 (Grandfather): They need occupy their minds with something healthy [referring to physical activities]. Even today in school for the little ones, there are drugs. We have to instill in them that they should not be so easily influenced by other kids, because if not, that will have ruined any knowledge they have gained. |
| Gender and LTPA: No gender difference |
| Quote 7 (Grandmother): Well I think they are equal, I think now they are the same but before back in my childhood it was seen as a sin, girls were not supposed to be seen playing with the ball. It was not a norm to see a girl tough in any sports that were guy populated. Now I changed my own mind-set, it’s basically the same thing between boys and girls that play any sport. I even have a granddaughter that like to play in sports more than my boy grandchildren.” |
| Gender and LTPA: Gender difference |
| Quote 8 (Grandmother): Mmhh well yes I think there should be a difference between boys and girls because the boys are usually more aggressive and tough and the girls are more soft and sweet. So I feel like there should be a difference between the two when it comes to physical activity. . . . Well, I would talk to her [granddaughter] and tell her there is a difference between boys and girls and explain it to her on to why there is a difference. I feel like she should know a lot of things as to why there is a difference between the two. |
| Use of screen-based media |
| Quote 9 (Grandmother): For me personally, it’s a waste of time. For me, in terms of my grandson, he’s wasting his time. He’ll have missed out on his childhood because he’s been stuck playing video games all the time . . . However, if he’s outside doing activities, playing, taking in fresh air, etc. he’s different. In addition their eyesight gets worse [as a result of playing video games] |
| Quote 10 (Grandfather): Well, I have a grandson who likes to play a lot on his Nintendo and every time I ask him questions about his video games he knows all of the answers. This isn’t something he learned at school, it’s something he learned by himself. And it’s good, because I don’t know anything about Nintendo [laughing]. And when I ask him, he’s like “come here grandpa this is how you do it.” |
| Support for grandchildren’s LTPA: Direct support |
| Quote 11 (Grandmother): Before at home I liked to dance, I still like to dance, and I’ll tell everyone to dance with me, and at first they don’t want to. But once they see me dancing, they start to dance, and they’ve liked to dance a lot. I learned some steps years back and I would show them the steps and they would repeat after me. |
| Quote 12 (Grandmother): Mine [grandson] is good at just sitting down and playing video games. I’ll be in the house, and sometimes I forget that he’s there because he makes no sound while playing video games. He doesn’t even like TV he’s just obsessed with his video games… That’s why I promise him different things, just to get him outside of the house and away from those video games. He’s only 8 years old. |
| Support for grandchildren’s LTPA: Indirect support |
| Quote 13 (Grandmother): . . . She’s [participant’s daughter] also a little overweight. And I tell her to go walk around the neighborhood, so she can show them [grandchildren] how to exercise, and put the girl in the stroller. |
| Barriers to supporting grandchildren’s LTPA |
| Quote 14 (Grandmother): Places where people can exercise and have different sports. Centers where people can meet and exercise near our place. Also it is important this type of information [centers to exercise] can be easily available to the community so they could take advantage of these. The problem with us is the lack of information that is around. Is like what are you doing, you are investigating what we [grandparents] are doing to help their grandchildren be active. This should be done around the community to pass out the word to help others. More information. |
| Quote 15 (Grandmother): Well, right here there aren’t really a lot of parks and the nearby parks are usually not the best. They have a lot of people just doing drugs and there’re a lot of people that just looks unsafe and intimidating. |
Note. LTPA = leisure time physical activity.
Authors’ Note
The funding agencies did not have any role in study design; collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; writing the report; and the decision to submit the report for publication. A one-page abstract based on part of the study data was submitted to Society of Behavioral Medicine 37th Annual Meeting & Scientific Sessions, and was published on the website (
; page 72).
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This research was funded by National Institutes of Health, National Institute of Minority Health and Health Disparities Research Infrastructure in Minority Institutes Grant# 5T34MH020023, and by California State University Northridge Office of Provost.