In the Eyes of the Beholder

Diversity of Young Children and Their Families

The adage that no two children are alike has never been more appropriate when considering the current population of the United States. In 2011, there were 73.9 million children living in the United States, 1.5 million more than in 2000 (Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, 2012). Within this growing population, there is great diversity. The term diversity can be applied to a variety of dimensions within a child and family’s life including racial and ethnic differences, languages, socio-economic structure, family structure, and ability levels. It is important to note that there are not certain children, families, or groups of people that are diverse; rather the population is diverse, and as individuals we all vary on many dimensions. While we cannot fully capture the richness of the diversity that early educators may see within their classroom, in the following we describe certain aspects of diversity found in the current population of the United States.

In terms of racial and ethnic demographics, the U.S. Census Bureau (2011) identified this national distribution: Whites, non-Hispanics (63.7%), Hispanics/Latinos (16.2%), African Americans/Blacks (12.2%), Asians (4.7%), American Indians and Alaskan Indians (1%), and Native Hawaiians/Other Pacific Islanders (<1%). It is projected that by 2023, less than half of all children will identify as Whites, non-Hispanics, and by the year 2050, 39% of children are expected to identify as Hispanics/Latinos (Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, 2012).

Diversity can also be considered in terms of the languages spoken by a child and his or her family. As many as 381 languages other than English are spoken within homes in the United States, the most common languages being Spanish and Chinese (Shin & Kaminski, 2010). In 2010, 22% of children spoke a language other than English in their home, up from 18% in 2000 (Federal Interagency Forum on Child and Family Statistics, 2012). In 2011, Head Start reported that approximately 30% of the 1,142,000 children and pregnant women served were from families that primarily spoke a language other than English at home (“Head Start Program Facts,” 2011).

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The socio-economic status of a child’s family also influences the expectations and priorities a family holds and is therefore another important type of diversity when considering behavior. In 2011, 21.9% of individuals younger than 18 in the United States were growing up in poverty, defined as US$22,350 per year for a family of four (DeNavas-Walt, Proctor, & Smith, 2012; U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2012). Growing up in poverty can effect all aspects of a child’s development and can affect their future success in school and life (Duncan & Magnuson, 2011; Hanson, 2013b). The gap between those living “with” and “without” continues to grow within the United States. In 2008, the richest 10% of U.S. households received 48.2% of the nation’s total income, while the bottom 90% of households had the largest single-year drop in income since 1938 (Children’s Defense Fund, 2011).

Early educators have the opportunity to work with young children and their families that are likely representative of the growing diversity within the country. In the following section, we contemplate the role of a family’s cultural context in creating behavioral expectations for young children.

The Role of Culture in Fostering Behavioral Expectations for Young Children

The complexity of individuals’ cultural diversity influences the perceptions, interactions, and priorities they hold as important. Within their families and community, young children learn and develop, adopting the cultural expectations of these contexts. Super and Harkness (1986, 2002) describe the concept of the “developmental niche” that includes all the components of the child’s “culturally constructed” environment. These interacting subsystems include the physical and social setting in which children grow and learn, the customs and practices in the care settings, and the parents’/caregivers’ views (or ethnotheories) of the child and of development.

“An understanding of parental views is essential for other caregivers and educators in order that they can jointly support the child’s early learning, including social-emotional development.“

An understanding of parental views is essential for other caregivers and educators in order that they can jointly support the child’s early learning, including social-emotional development. Harkness and colleagues (2010) note that these “parental ethnotheories” or parents’ cultural beliefs/models manifest implicitly and are often taken for granted. These views influence how parents help their children grow up and become members of the family’s community. These researchers documented considerable variation in parental beliefs and child-rearing practices even among groups of mothers from five different cultures. For example, mothers assigned differential importance to their children’s early learning. While American and Korean mothers were more likely to talk about the importance of providing stimulation to prompt brain development and learning, Spanish and Italian mothers emphasized the significance of social interaction.

Attention to cultural influences is essential when considering the developmental milestones one expects and values in young children such as appropriate behaviors. Spicer (2010) used survey methodology to examine racial and ethnic differences on several dimensions including families’ parenting beliefs and understandings of children’s milestones. The findings revealed differences between Whites, African Americans, and Hispanics/Latinos groups with respect to parenting behavior such as enforcing rules, comforting the child in distress, talking about feelings, understanding child emotions, and encouraging child persistence. Differences across groups also were found regarding social-emotional developmental expectations regarding behaviors such as turn-taking and controlling their anger. Likewise, cultural differences were noted on skills parents believed were essential for school readiness such as the ability to show respect for adults, and the ability to sit still and pay attention.

The findings of these studies demonstrate how culturally laden expectations and understanding regarding child development can be. Similarly, it exemplifies how varying notions of appropriate and challenging behaviors can be constructed. Consider the examples of the three children at the beginning of this article. While Javiero’s lack of self-help skills may be seen as indicative of a lack of self-awareness and independence within the early education classroom setting, this same behavior is likely to meet the expectations of his family and community for young children to demonstrate dependence on their caregivers. Eloni’s lack of both verbal and non-verbal communication with adults may be viewed as signs of disengagement or lack of confidence but viewed as a demonstration of respect and authority within his family. Destiny’s family may value the ability to speak one’s mind and self-advocate; however, these behaviors may be interpreted through the lens of the classroom personnel as aggressive and disrespectful in that context. Some cultural considerations regarding common “challenging” behavior that may be observed in early childhood settings are outlined in Table 1.

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Table 1

Cultural Considerations When Observing “Challenging” Behavior in Young Children

Observed “challenging” behavior	Cultural considerations
Demonstrates lack of independence and self-help skills	Family and community may value dependence behavior in young children and desire to help the child through these activities rather than expect independent behavior.
Makes only limited or no eye contact particularly with adults	Eye contact with teachers and adults may be considered disrespectful and inappropriate for a young child.
Rarely expresses own opinion or speaks up	Children may be expected to “be seen and not heard”; they may be discouraged to speak out and voice their own opinion.
Uses an aggressive communication style (e.g., sassing, angry words, inappropriate words) or uses physical aggression (e.g., pushing or shoving aside) when dealing with a problem	Children may be encouraged to be independent and learn to fend for themselves.
Rarely shows interest in “academic” activities such as looking at books, drawing, or writing	Child may have had limited exposure to books and print materials in the home. Verbal communication may be valued rather than reading or writing.
Does not share with peers	Sharing toys and materials may not be expected of a child at a young age or the child may have had limited experience with peers and/or an environment rich in resources like toys and manipulatives.
Does not participate appropriately in classroom routines like lining up to go outside, passing the dishes during lunchtime, or sitting quietly on the carpet to wait a turn during circle time.	Classroom activities and routines may be unfamiliar to the young child. Some of the behavior within these routines may not be expected of the child at home.
Does not sit still or pay attention	The child may be expected to entertain him or herself and encouraged to initiate their own activities rather than follow directions or sit attentively.
Is unable to describe feelings and is reluctant to do so	Sharing emotions may not be valued by the family and instead viewed as something to keep private.
Does not show persistence when a task is difficult	Family may value assisting child in completing tasks and encourage the child to ask for help when needed.

It is important to note that not all members of a cultural or ethnic group share all values and beliefs even though they may hold many customs and practices in common. Likewise, these beliefs and values are best understood as a continuum of orientations that is dynamic and contextual, rather than a rigid set of notions (Barrera, Kramer, & Macpherson, 2012; Lynch & Hanson, 2011).

Implications for Early Educators

Carlson and Harwood (2000) refer to culture as a “shared knowledge.” Beliefs and behavior expectations are often assumed and unspoken; at times, they may not even be conscious. Yet, we all have distinct sets of assumptions that are derived from our background and experiences. The following discussion includes questions and strategies for educators addressing these different perspectives while working with young children and their families, and assessing children’s behavior.

Strategies for Working With Families From Diverse Backgrounds

Early educators can engage in a variety of practices to ensure that they are considering alternative meanings of child behavior. They want to consider a variety of questions and strategies when working with families from diverse backgrounds. These include expanding their self-awareness, listening to the family’s perspective, gathering information about a cultural belief, acknowledging different expectations, and coming to agreements on goals.

Expanding self-awareness

An essential, ongoing practice is expanding one’s self-awareness in terms of the values, personal inclinations, and behavior styles that influence an individual’s thoughts and actions (Gonzalez-Mena, 2008). In considering a child’s behavior, stop and ask a variety of questions. What are the behavioral expectations for how a child should act in this situation or context, and why is this the case? Consider whether the child is exhibiting a critical behavior. For example, is the child hurting someone? Is there really a problem? Furthermore, consider what types of beliefs are guiding ideas about children’s development and how these may differ from this family or community. A number of studies have contrasted the ages at which children from different cultural backgrounds typically achieve developmental milestones (Carlson & Harwood, 2000; Spicer, 2010). This variation does not need to be problematic but it likely will be if there is limited awareness of these differences.

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Listening to the family’s perspective

Glean from the parent(s)/caregivers what their values and expectations are. This may be done through an informal interview using open-ended questions. Information also may be obtained from the family member’s storytelling or from a cultural guide in the community (such as a visiting nurse, healer, spiritual leader, elder, community leader) who works with the child’s family and community. It may be helpful in speaking with the family to ask them to verbally walk through a “typical day in the life of their child.” In addition, educators may want to ask families about their expectations for children this age (e.g., feed themselves, independently toilet, be polite, enjoy their childhood and rely on their caregivers). Asking families to describe their hopes and dreams for their child can provide a rich source of information. Further useful strategies for communicating with families representing diverse perspectives can be found in Barrera et al. (2012).

Gathering information on cultural beliefs related to child-rearing, discipline, and expectations for early child development

Consider ways to meaningfully learn about other cultural perspectives. Lynch (2011) suggests four ideas, including (a) learning through books, the arts, and technology; (b) talking, socializing, and working with individuals from that culture that can guide and mediate learning; (c) participating in the daily life of another culture; and (d) learning the language of another culture. It is likely that family members can suggest resources, activities, and individuals that they value or feel are good representatives of their culture. Furthermore, reading books related to developing cultural competence (e.g., Lynch & Hanson, 2011) and searching online and reliable community sources related to different cultural groups could uncover rich resources.

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Acknowledging different expectations

Misperceptions may ensue as families move from their native or culture of origin and interact with a new environment (Lynch, 2011). This may be the case for many immigrant families in the United States who are often faced with quite different philosophies and rituals after moving to a new country. For instance, early childhood programs in the United States often promote independence and value children’s learning to care for self, play with other children, and openly express feelings and opinions for themselves. Children in the United States are often included in family decision-making such as deciding where to have lunch or prioritizing family activities (e.g., going to the park). This may be in sharp contrast with expectations and practices in other countries where the adults make these decisions for the child and family.

Coming to agreement on goals

When priorities and goals differ between professionals and families, it may be useful to “bring alternative perspectives to the table” and be receptive to alternatives or compromises (Barrera et al., 2012). Facilitating dialogue can foster an openness to appreciate the other partner’s notions and priorities. Educators may wish to provide family members with information on curricular goals and early education perspectives, and describe why certain behaviors are perceived challenging in terms of influencing the child’s adaption and interaction in the educational environment. For example, it is important for Javiero to learn to put on his coat himself so he can independently go outside and takes responsibility for his own belongings. On the other hand, educators must listen to families to learn what their priorities are for their children, and why this is important to their family and community. In the case of Javiero, his grandmother may share how it is a sign of love and care when adults help younger children. As a team, the early educator and family will need to discuss if there are specific self-help behaviors that are essential for Javiero to learn within the classroom setting before moving on to kindergarten (e.g., toileting) and which behaviors the family feels are important acts of care for them to demonstrate to Javiero (e.g., helping with his backpack).

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Conclusion

Given the increasing diversity of families within the United States, early educators have many opportunities to work with children and families from diverse backgrounds. It is likely that these encounters will include children such as Javiero, Eloni, and Destiny, who at first glance, exhibit behavior that educators may consider worrisome and “challenging.” However, many child responses, such as those highlighted in Table 1, may be rooted in a family’s cultural beliefs about children’s social-emotional development. While commonly deemed problematic in early childhood settings, some child behavior may be encouraged and hold different meanings in that child’s family and community.

As adults, we have come to understand unwritten rules and codes of certain behavior. For instance, in some cultures it may be appropriate to touch one another on greeting, even kiss others on the cheek, whereas in other cultures, this physical contact with a stranger or persons of unequal status would be deemed highly inappropriate, especially if a woman initiated it. In the same manner, it is important for to understand the meaning of young children’s behavior. At times, the influence of our values, beliefs, and priorities may shade our perspectives on the function, meaning, or appropriateness of behaviors we observe. Using questions and strategies such as the ones described in this article may assist educators to effectively work with families in identifying concerns in a culturally sensitive manner.

The sequence and developmental progression observed within young children is in many respects “hardwired” by genetics. However, particularly in the area of social-emotional development, there is wide latitude for interpretation regarding the meaning of behavior and expectations in the child’s larger social context. As we strive to support young children and families from diverse backgrounds, it is essential that we acknowledge that many “challenging” behaviors are only such “in the eyes of the beholder.”