Abstract
Four-year-old Austin becomes frustrated when there are not enough materials at a learning center. His irritation can be seen when he observes a limited number of scissors at the art table, not enough cookie cutters when playdoh is available in a center, or an inadequate number of specialty blocks (i.e., curved pieces, tunnels) in the block center. Five-year-old Madison has autism spectrum disorders (ASD) and often loses her temper when she needs to get ready for outdoor time. She struggles to zip her coat, put on mittens, and get her feet into her new boots. Three-and-a-half-year-old Noah gets aggravated when the chair next to his best friend Shannon is already taken at the snack table, or when a classmate sits next to Shannon on the carpet during Morning Meeting. Head Start teacher, Ms. Jones, observes these emotional outbursts on a fairly regular basis and decides that she must do something to teach her preschoolers how to problem solve. She knows that if her young students gain skills in problem solving, they will become less emotionally volatile, more independent, and socially skilled.
Ms. Jones is correct in thinking that problem solving is an important skill for her students to develop. Social competence and in particular the development of problem solving skills are a foundational piece of healthy social-emotional development (Webster-Stratton & Reid, 2004). As young children learn new skills and develop independence, they continue to need assistance from adults, which may lead to feelings of frustration. This is illustrated by the frustration Madison experiences when it is time for her to get dressed to play outdoors. These frustrations may lead to challenging behavior for some young children. Children who display challenging behavior are at risk of social and academic problems (Kaiser & Rasminsky, 2003). However, if they become skilled problem-solvers, their levels of independence and self-esteem increase, and their frustration level decreases. Research has shown that learning to problem solve can help prevent and reduce challenging behavior in children (Webster-Stratton & Reid, 2004). When children learn multiple ways of approaching a problem, they are likely to solve the problem thereby reducing the probability that they will engage in challenging behavior.
Many young children learn to interact with peers and problem solve in large group settings such as preschool or child care. Failure to learn these skills can be problematic, as is illustrated by Noah who struggles to “share” his friend Shannon. As children enter kindergarten and progress through elementary school, they are expected to navigate social situations with their peers on a regular basis. Children with effective problem solving skills can be observed successfully handling a variety of situations. Specifically, socially competent children are more likely to work toward a solution, be assertive, and respond pro-socially as opposed to using less effective techniques such as avoidance, manipulation, or continually requesting help from others (Joseph & Strain, 2010; Mayeux & Cillessen, 2003). In addition, successful children are able to generate multiple solutions to problems and are flexible in how they approach problems. Children who can successfully navigate social encounters are more likely to make friends (Mayeux & Cillessen, 2003), and children who develop meaningful friendships are more likely to do well academically than those who do not (Fantuzzo & McWayne, 2002; Hampton & Fantuzzo, 2003).
“Problem solving skills are foundational to the development of other skills and success in educational settings.”
Problem solving skills are foundational to the development of other skills and success in educational settings. Solving social problems, resolving conflicts, and being empathetic are core components of emotional intelligence that support effective learning (Bernard-Opitz, Sriram, & Nakhoda-Sapuan, 2001). Understanding the process of problem solving is more important than simply being given a solution each time a crisis arises. Children can learn to use this problem solving process to address the immediate situation they encounter as well as in other contexts. Early childhood environments can be structured to provide many opportunities to teach problem solving skills.
The Center on the Social and Emotional Foundation for Early Learning (CSEFEL) lists four essential problem solving steps for young children to learn and act on: (a) identify the problem, (b) think about solutions, (c) think about what will happen if this solution is implemented and how others will feel if it is implemented, and (d) try the solution (see Joseph & Strain, 2010, for details on these steps). These problem solving steps can and should be incorporated into the daily instruction (e.g., storybook reading, large and small group instruction, and center activities) in a classroom to support the development of young children’s problem solving skills. In addition, by partnering with families, problem solving can be taught both at home and within early childhood settings. In a tiered approach to teaching, instruction in solving problems could ideally occur at Tier 1, which includes core or universal outcomes and teaching/caregiving strategies (The Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children [DEC], National Association for the Education of Young Children [NAEYC], & National Head Start Association [NHSA], 2013). The classroom environment should promote the active use of the four problem solving steps. For example, problem solving steps and possible solutions can be displayed with visuals in the classroom, and teachers can prompt children to use these steps throughout the day.
Teachers, caregivers, and other individuals who work with young children can play a pivotal role in supporting, encouraging, and teaching problem solving skills. While some children develop problem solving skills through observation and experience, children with developmental delays and other disabilities, such as ASD, do not develop these skills as easily and need intentional teaching. In Tier 2 of a multi-tiered system of support, targeted social-emotional strategies are provided to children who need more support (DEC, NAEYC, & NHSA, 2013). Fortunately, research has shown that problem solving skills can be successfully taught to children (Shure & Spivack, 1980; Webster-Stratton & Hammond, 1997; Webster-Stratton & Reid, 2004). In addition, teaching problem solving skills to young children with disabilities has resulted in positive outcomes (Karnes, Johnson, & Deauchamp, 2005). One particularly useful strategy for teaching problem solving is through the use of children’s books. The purpose of this article is to provide early educators with universal support (Tier 1) and intentional teaching (Tier 2) strategies to teach children social problem solving skills. Tips for embedding opportunities to teach problem solving skills and extension activities beyond story time also are shared.
Using Storybooks to Teach Problem Solving Skills
Reading to young children is an important activity in early development. Research has shown that reading results in increased language skills and creates the foundation for later language and literacy skills (National Research Council, 1999). Due to these benefits, early childhood educators and caregivers typically make reading part of the daily routine. Teachers recognize the importance of building language and literacy skills and the value of reading to young children in the classroom, while many family members make shared book reading a part of their daily routine too. While the benefits of reading on language development and later reading skills may seem obvious, there are other skills that also can be developed through the use of storybooks. For example, storybooks have been used to help children develop skills such as imagination, reflection, perspective taking, and understanding social relationships (Browne, 1996); empathy (Holm, 2012); language, creativity, problem solving, and movement skills (Gabbei & Clemmens, 2005); and mathematics (Hintz & Smith, 2013). Storybooks also have been used to teach the process of solving problems in content areas such as math (Wilburne & Keat, 2011), making them a potential tool for teaching problem solving skills to young children. Finally, children’s literature has been used to teach self-determination skills (Konrad, Helf, & Itoi, 2007).
“Children’s books often provide a context that allows them to identify the character’s emotional state during the story and learn about the social skills and problem solving strategies the character uses as the story progresses.”
Storybook reading opportunities that arise naturally throughout the day not only support the development of listening, oral language, and reading and writing skills but also foster social-emotional growth. Children’s literature has been used by educators and parents to teach a variety of social and self-help skills (Bierman et al., 2008; Coppola 2005, Dunst & Shue, 2005; Santos, Fettig, & Shaffer, 2012). This is because much of children’s literature focuses on topics that are appropriate for young children, and these often include concepts such as sharing, being good friends, and problem solving. Research on book reading (Roberts, Jurgens, & Burchinal 2005; van Kleeck, Gillam, Hamilton, & McGrath, 1997) recommends that teachers engage children in conversations about the storybook and images presented. Children’s books often provide a context that allows them to identify the character’s emotional state during the story and learn about the social skills and problem solving strategies the character uses as the story progresses. In addition, through the natural progression of discussion during storybook reading, children can be encouraged to share their personal experiences in similar situations.
Book Selection
When using storybooks to teach problem solving, book selection is important. Young children are excited to learn about the world outside their home, school, or environment. They enjoy listening to slightly more complex texts with more in-depth characters and still enjoy good rhythm and some repetition. A well-written, developmentally appropriate children’s book should have clear and colorful illustrations, simple and fun plots, and lively rhymes and repetitions that children can repeat and remember, and review basic concepts from everyday lives (Hearne, 2000). Furthermore, many children’s books focus on teaching social-emotional and problem solving skills, either explicitly or indirectly. Such books may address challenging issues directly as part of the storyline or indirectly by including problem solving as part of the broader story. Children’s literature might introduce characters and situations that can lead to meaningful discussions focused on facing challenges, resolving problems, or using skills such as cooperation or sharing. If teachers intentionally select books that feature characters that encounter problems, they can pause and ask children to identify the problems and generate solutions. As the teacher continues to read, the children can learn how the character solved the problem, and they can evaluate whether the solution was a good choice. For example, in the book Curious George and the Birthday Surprise (Rey, Rey, & Weston, 2003), Curious George was very worried when he made a mess in the Man in the Yellow Hat’s kitchen. He decided to invite all his friends to help him clean up the mess. Teachers can draw children’s attention to George’s problem and the strategies that he used to solve this dilemma. As Ms. Jones begins using the four-step problem solving process mentioned earlier (identify the problem, think about solutions, consider what will happen if each solution is implemented and how others will feel if it is implemented, and try the solution), Austin, Madison, and Noah start showing evidence of considering new solutions to problems they encounter in school. Madison needs additional support in learning to problem solve including direct systematic instruction and practice using visual supports and prompting strategies. Ms. Jones prompts Madison to think about the problem solving steps by directing Madison’s attention to the four-step problem solving techniques posted in the classroom. By using visual supports, Ms. Jones is facilitating better communication and language comprehension for Madison (Gauvreau & Schwartz, 2013). A list of books that promote the development of problem solving skills is provided in Table 1. It is also important that teachers select books with characters that reflect the cultural, linguistic, and ability levels of the children in the classroom. This ensures that children are better able to relate to the characters in the story and maximize learning.
Sample Problem Solving Books
Note. For a list of books on friendships, feelings, and other social-emotional topics, see http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/documents/booklist.pdf
While commercially available children’s books are a great resource for teaching problem solving skills, storybooks and social stories made by children are excellent tools as well. Personalized storybooks and social stories may describe situations and skills that are meaningful to children and can be shared with classmates and families (Gray & Garand, 1993). Digital cameras, iPads, and cellphones can be used to take photographs to illustrate personalized stories that they create. For example, children can create books about problems they encounter and the steps they used to solve the problem. For example,
On Monday my friend Charlie and I were building a city in the block center. I was making a skyscraper and Charlie was making a movie theater. Charlie wanted the curved block that I was using. I got angry when Charlie took my block. I yelled and he yelled back. Then I suggested that we trade some blocks. I got back some pieces I wanted and Charlie got some that he wanted. We were both happy.
Children can also narrate and illustrate fictional stories in which a character encounters a problem, recognizes the emotions involved, and uses the problem solving steps to arrive at a solution. Teachers can include families as co-creators of these books and encourage parents to support their children to create illustrations that represent themselves and their peers in the classroom and home settings by guiding them to reflect on their own strengths, abilities, and diverse backgrounds they bring. Sharing these child-made books during story time is a great strategy to help children learn how to problem solve, and enhance their literacy skills as well. These books can also be used as visual supports to guide children like Madison through difficult social situations.
Strategies to Use When Reading
During storybook reading, teachers can use several strategies to support children’s problem solving development. These strategies are identifying feelings, providing opportunities for responding, and repeated reading.
Identifying feelings
Identifying others’ facial expressions, body language, and feelings can help children recognize that a problem exists and is a key social-emotional skill for young children (Webster-Stratton & Reid, 2004). Teachers should encourage children to suggest possible emotions that a book character might be feeling when he or she encounters a problem. As the storyline progresses, teachers can guide children in reassessing the characters’ emotions, thereby helping children learn that feelings and emotions can change as a problem is addressed. For example, in the story Sheep in the Jeep (Shaw & Apple, 2006), the sheep were very frustrated when their jeep broke down because they did not know what to do. When the sheep’s friends helped them pull the jeep out of the mud, the sheep were very happy that they could get back in their jeep and continue on their trip. Children might suggest that when the jeep broke down, the sheep felt angry, scared, sad, upset, or irritated, and when the problem was solved, the sheep felt happy, excited, or relieved.
Provide opportunities for responding
Providing opportunities for children to respond during storybook reading has positive effects on children’s academic as well as social-emotional development (Partin, Robertson, Maggin, Oliver, & Wehby, 2009). By encouraging children to respond to books, caregivers can assess children’s knowledge. Teachers can guide children to respond not only by answering questions but also by expressing sympathy and empathy, and by suggesting solutions to problems encountered by the characters. For example, teachers can help children come up with a list of solutions that the characters could utilize to solve their problems. Teachers can also support children in acting out parts of a story, utilizing some of the alternative solutions that were generated. Props and puppets can be provided for the children to use to encourage engagement throughout the reading. It is important that children’s unique responses to books are honored throughout book reading, as multiple solutions might be feasible for solving each problem. As solutions are generated, teachers can support children in evaluating each solution and select ones that they believe the character should try. When reading Sheep in the Jeep (Shaw & Apple, 2006), teachers can ask children to generate a list of solutions the sheep could try when their jeep broke down. Through this process, the teachers can guide children to evaluate their solutions: Should the sheep push the jeep, ask their friends for help, or walk home and leave the jeep behind? Which solution should they try? Which solution did they try? Was it a good solution?
Repeated reading
Reading the same book for several days in a row provides opportunities for children to talk about the story, predict what will come next, learn new vocabulary, and talk about their own experiences (McGee & Schickedanz, 2007). Furthermore, repeated reading is especially important for children with diverse learning abilities as it provides young children with a sense of mastery; they feel more confident that they know the story, can predict the outcomes, can read along with the teacher, and master problem solving skills learned in prior readings. Repeated readings allow children opportunities to examine different solutions the characters could use to solve problems. As books are re-read, the solutions generated by children might vary from day to day and present occasions for caregivers to expand on children’s ideas. Through this process, children learn that there might be several possible solutions to each problem encountered, and evaluating each solution helps them select the appropriate one to try.
Extending Problem Solving Beyond Storybook Reading
Ganea, Pickard, and DeLoache (2008) found that toddlers are able to transfer novel skills learned during storybook reading to real world situations. In addition to teaching problem solving through children’s storybooks, teachers can extend their teaching of these skills into other everyday situations. For example, teachers might teach problem solving through role-play, modeling, small group activities, and teachable moments that arise naturally or through thoughtful planning. At the Tier 1 level, these activities can be done with the whole class over the course of the year to address general problems that most students encounter (i.e., sharing, taking turns, tattling, dealing with broken or missing toys). These activities could also be used at the Tier 2 level, targeting particular dyads or small groups of students who are having specific problem solving challenges. Four activities that extend beyond storybook reading are described in Table 2 (CSEFEL Book Nook, 2006).
Extension Activities to Children’s Literature
Note. For complete Book Nooks, see http://csefel.vanderbilt.edu/resources/strategies.html#booknook
Role-play and modeling
Role-play is a context in which children can express their feelings and experiences. For most children, role-play is a developmental milestone that occurs around the age of 3 (Berk, 2009). Role-play gives children a chance to act out the storyline from a book as well as events that they have observed, experienced, or considered. Audiobooks and storybooks can be placed in different centers to encourage this activity. Once children are familiar with a storyline, they can generate alternate solutions to a problem and then act out the solutions. Children and teachers also can act out stories and scenarios with puppets or dolls, including problem scenarios that might have occurred earlier in the day. During role-play, teachers can help children practice using the four problem solving steps described earlier. As children generate solutions to problems, teachers can write these ideas on a whiteboard or flipchart for children to read, and together, they can evaluate the solutions. Children can talk about the solutions as a small or large group and decide which one(s) to try. It is important that teachers guide children in reframing problems as their own (e.g., “I want to play with Jake and Lucas” rather than “They won’t let me play”), as this will help children generate more appropriate solutions.
By modeling the four problem solving steps listed earlier, teachers show children how to use them across the day. For instance, as teachers encounter problems during school, each of these instances provides learning opportunities for children to watch adults problem solve. Teachers can verbalize the problem solving process as a model for students, and link their problem to one of the storybooks the class has been reading (e.g., Ms. Jones says, “Oh, no! My desk drawer is stuck. What could I do?” If the students are having difficulty coming up with solutions, she could say, “What did the sheep do when their jeep got stuck?” Together they might discuss possible solutions and choose one that seems best. After trying the “best” strategy, the class can discuss how it worked and if a new solution should be tried.). Teachers can introduce vocabulary words such as “problem,” “difficulty,” “ideas,” “thoughts,” “answers,” and “solutions” to draw children’s attention to the problem solving strategies being used. Teachers also can model how they identify a problem, generate and evaluate solutions that are suitable to resolve the problem, and try out a solution.
Small group activities
Small group activities occur regularly in most preschool classrooms, and teachers can plan these to extend storybook reading to learning problem solving skills. For example, teachers can create a “What should I do?” game. In this game, children take turns pretending to be the main character in the storybook, encountering problems, imagining other problems the character might face as the story progresses, and generating solutions. Teachers can guide children to think of multiple solutions to solve the problem. Solutions can be posted on the classroom wall for children and visitors to add to throughout the day or week. Another way to promote the use of problem solving skills is through games (e.g., Jenga™, Twister™, Pick Up Sticks™).
Children also can create their own storybooks about experiences they encounter, the emotions associated with these experiences, and solutions to their problems. Teachers can select a “storybook of the day” to be placed at the writing center as a guide for the activity. For example, in Hey, Little Ant (Hoose & Hoose, 1998), a little boy struggles with the decision to squish an ant or not. Children can write their own ending to this fun story in the creative writing center, with partners, or in small groups. Another activity to support problem solving is to have groups of children make a “solution kit” for the entire class (Center on the Social and Emotional Foundation for Early Learning [CSEFEL], n.d.). Children can use pictures and words to illustrate different solutions to problems they have encountered in school. These solution cards can be placed in a container (i.e., small suitcase or a cloth bag) that is made readily available for children to access when they encounter a problem in the classroom.
Embedded teachable moments
Young children learn best from everyday experiences during which they interact with each other and solve problems, which are relevant and meaningful to them. For instance, when Madison’s shirt got wet during water play, Ms. Jones asked the students to think of possible solutions to Madison’s problem. The children generated several ideas: “she can dry it off with a towel, she can dry it with the hand dryer in the bathroom, or she can change her shirt.” Ms. Jones had the children vote on what solution they thought would be best, and after Madison choose one the group discussed how well it worked. Teachers should take advantage of such naturally occurring, teachable moments to demonstrate and support the use of problem solving skills throughout the day. It is helpful for teachers to observe those moments when children have problems and support them in identifying their feelings and using the problem solving steps. For example, after placing one pair of scissors on the table for an art activity, Ms. Jones might say, “Oh my goodness! We have a problem. There is only one pair of scissors but five friends need it—what can we do?” She can encourage the children to generate solutions to resolve the issue. Also, teachers can “planfully sabotage” or “problematize” activities throughout the day and encourage children to generate solutions. For instance, Ms. Jones might change children’s names on their cubbies and then encourage the children who are readers to help one another find their right name.
Video self-modeling
Video self-modeling (VSM) is an intervention strategy used to increase skills through video recording children engaging in the skills being targeted and showing them the videos (Collier-Meek, Fallon, Johnson, Sanetti, & Delcampo, 2012; Hitchcock, Dowrick, & Prater, 2003). VSM is a great way to utilize technology in the classroom to support children’s learning. Teachers can use this technique in conjunction with other problem solving strategies to enhance the delivery of social skill instruction. For example, Ms. Jones can record children acting out a scenario where they used problem solving strategies or she can record children effectively engaging in problem solving strategies throughout the classroom day. Ms. Jones can then use the videos as a method of instruction in teaching problem solving skills during large group time and give specific children additional feedback on their problem solving skills. VSM also provides children with opportunities to see themselves using appropriate strategies to solve problems. In addition, Ms. Jones can also videotape individual children trying out problem solving strategies and use the video in one-on-one instruction to provide feedback on the use of these strategies.
Summary
Teachers play a vital role in helping children develop foundational social-emotional skills, including problem solving skills. Fortunately, children’s classroom routines such as story time offer abundant opportunities to develop these skills. Teachers can take advantage of these opportunities by
embedding opportunities to teach problem solving steps during story time,
extending problem solving activities beyond storybooks,
identifying children’s ability to problem solve and intentionally teaching these skills throughout the day, and
watching for opportunities to embed and scaffold children’s use of problem solving skills.
When teachers intentionally teach problem solving skills, they support children in their social-emotional development and help children become actively engaged problem-solvers, laying the foundation for success in school and life. As children with diverse abilities are included in classes with typically developing peers, it is critical that teachers facilitate the development of these skills, providing individualized instruction and opportunities to generalize what they have learned across different settings. Collaborating with family members can help ensure the consistent use of the problem solving steps across home, school, and community contexts. Rather than waiting until children become frustrated when they encounter difficult situations, the ability to problem solve can reduce emotional outbursts and help create peaceful, collaborative early childhood settings.
Returning to our vignette, we see positive changes as a result of Ms. Jones’s intentional teaching across the months.
Austin has learned to ask for a turn and wait for his friends to finish using materials that are limited during center time. Madison uses visual supports (in her case, a photograph of Ms. Jones assisting her with her book bag) to request help from adults or peers when she struggles to get ready for outdoor play. When he cannot sit next to his best friend Shannon, Noah has become skilled at taking three deep breathes to calm himself down and thinking about other times during the day when he can play with her. The Head Start classroom is now full of preschoolers who are problem-solvers. Not only is the room calmer on most days, the children are more independent and socially skilled. Parents and teachers alike have noticed the positive changes.
Footnotes
Authors’ Note
You may reach Dr. Angel Fettig by e-mail at