The Influence of Event Authenticity and Quality Attributes on Behavioral Intentions

Abstract

Many studies have found that the perceived authenticity of cultural and religious events affects event satisfaction and loyalty. Little is currently known about how perceived authenticity is affected by the quality of other event attributes, such as food and the availability of information, which are independent determinants of satisfaction and loyalty. This article explores this complex relationship using empirical data collected through a survey conducted during the 2010 Holy Year in Santiago de Compostela. A total of 400 questionnaires were analyzed using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling (SEM). The results of our analysis of the 2010 Holy Year provide support for the effect of event perceived authenticity on event satisfaction, and they also indicate that event perceived authenticity does not have a direct impact on event loyalty. Instead, its relationship to the intention to revisit is mediated by event satisfaction. In addition, the effects of event attributes were assessed for both event satisfaction and perceived authenticity, and significant differences were found.

Keywords

events perceived authenticity event attributes behavioral intentions Santiago de Compostela structural equation modeling (SEM)

Introduction

The roles and impacts of planned events within tourism are of increasing importance for destination competitiveness. Much of the appeal of events lies in the fact that they are never the same, and one has to be there to enjoy the authentic experience to the full; missing an event is therefore a lost opportunity (Getz, 2008). Consequently, the built artifacts and activities provided for visitors can be viewed as valuable assets, resources, or inputs that may enhance their satisfaction and willingness to revisit the event and destination (Baker & Crompton, 2000). Although this relationship is critical, it encompasses just one of the consequences of products and services that event planners provide for tourists. Equally important is the recognition that material artifacts and services may trigger subjective and personal reactions, which, in turn, may affect consumer evaluation of and satisfaction with events (Chen & Chen, 2010; Lee et al., 2008; Otto & Ritchie, 1996; Yoon et al., 2010).

In this article, we focus on perceived authenticity, a subjective construct that has received growing attention from tourism literature (Buchmann, Moore, & Fisher, 2010; Chhabra, Healy, & Sills, 2003; Cohen, 1988; Cohen & Cohen, 2012; Graburn, 1983; Halewood & Hannam, 2001; Kolar & Zabkar, 2010; MacCannell, 1973; Reisinger & Steiner, 2006; Robinson & Clifford, 2012; Wang, 1999). The provision of authentic experiences can increase tourists’ satisfaction (Chhabra et al., 2003) and willingness to revisit the destination (Kolar & Zabkar, 2010) or event (Robinson & Clifford, 2012).

Despite this growing interest in the consequences of perceived authenticity, its presumed effect on satisfaction and loyalty, although intuitively rational, has not been tested or validated in any systematic fashion in tourism literature. Kalar and Zabkar (2010) pointed out that satisfaction and quality “have recently been studied in tourism, yet the lack of an empirical examination of their relatedness with authenticity is evident” (p. 11). Moreover, and from the point of view of the management and marketing of cultural events, what is important is not merely evaluating whether authenticity is a positive destination attribute, but also assessing whether the quality of event attributes—programs, artifacts, food, and atmosphere—affects the perception of authenticity. As Kalar and Zabkar (2010) explained, “For a management purpose it would thus be interesting to find out what are the other important and site-specific characteristics of heritage objects that affect tourists’ perception of authenticity” (p. 11). Consistent with Bitner (1992) and Brady and Cronin (2001), the total configuration of food, atmosphere, buildings, and event program has the potential to intimately engage and submerse tourists in various cultural and learning experiences. Chalip and McGuirty (2004) posited that the key challenge is to strategically incorporate the event into the host destination’s overall mix of tourism products and services.

Through an analysis of the 2010 Holy Year in Santiago de Compostela, this article contributes to literature on cultural and religious events in two ways. First, our research indicates that the perceived quality of event attributes can preclude visitors’ interpretation of authenticity. Mega-events of global importance that have been organized with the intention of increasing consumption have a negative impact on perceived authenticity. Second, merely generating authentic experiences does not directly increase tourists’ willingness to revisit the event. Although our results demonstrate the importance of perceived authenticity for achieving tourists’ satisfaction, they indicate that satisfaction mediates the effect of perceived authenticity on tourists’ intention to revisit.

The following section presents the theoretical background to the research, together with the development of specific research hypotheses. Subsequently, we describe the research methodology and test results. After discussing the implications of this study, the article concludes with the limitations of this research.

Theoretical Background

In this article, we adopt a consumer-based approach that offers an integrative framework for tourist perceptions and behavioral intentions (Kolar & Zabkar, 2010). The consumer approach focuses on the impact of external stimuli on consumer behavior (Kotler, Keller, Brady, Goodman, & Hansen, 2009). In a service context, interaction between the consumer and marketing-mix activities is an ongoing process in which the consumer develops attitudes and beliefs toward the marketing offer. Thus, according to this definition, consumers are expected to use their perceptions and cognitive resources to form beliefs and emotions about the attributes of a product, which in turn may result in the development of an overall attitude in the sense of liking or disliking a product (Solomon, Bamossy, Askegaard, & Hogg, 2010). The basic tenet of this consumer perspective is that demand dynamics such as customer value will necessarily affect organizations’ strategies, product development, and customers’ choices, and therefore influence an organization’s competitive advantage (Adner & Zemsky, 2006). From this point of view, understanding what customers value within a given offering, creating value for them, and then managing that value are essential in enabling organizations to design core strategies and achieve success.

The use of this approach derives from the widely held belief that event and festival tourism is essentially instrumentalist, whereby festivals are treated as tools for tourism and economic development, or for place marketing and promoting attractions (e.g., Buch, Milne, & Dickson, 2011; Getz, 2010). Event designers are particularly interested in knowing how their manipulation of settings, programming, and human interactions affects visitors’ experiential outcomes. Scholarly research (e.g., Baker & Crompton, 2000; Chen & Chen, 2010; Lee et al., 2008; Yoon et al., 2010) has shown that the quality of event attributes has a strong potential to elicit emotional and subjective reactions. For example, Otto and Ritchie (1996) pointed out that “the tranquil beauty of a mountain’s resort setting affords physiological benefits that clearly transcend the physical need to sleep somewhere” (p. 168). It follows that rather than describing actual activities and environmental cues, the key issue becomes how the activities sit in the psychological space of participants. Recent research has systematically analyzed the relationships between the quality of attributes and emotional reactions. Lee et al. (2008) drew on the notion of festivalscape as an antecedent of emotions, whereas Yoon et al. (2010) studied the effect of quality dimensions on festival value (i.e., the trade-off between the benefits obtained from the individual attributes and the expenses incurred). In particular, Otto and Ritchie (1996), Lee et al. (2008), and Yoon et al. (2010) illustrated how emotional responses to environmental cues can have an effect on satisfaction and loyalty.

Although the relationship between event attributes and emotions has been previously examined, only scant attention has been paid to the relationship between quality attributes and perceived authenticity. Along with emotions and perceived value, perceived authenticity is an activity-based notion that has proved to be especially relevant when examining heritage tourism (Cohen & Cohen, 2012; Halewood & Hannam, 2001; Kolar & Zabkar, 2010; Wang, 1999). In the current era of globalization, the homogenization of local cultures, and hyperreality, tourists look for authentic and real experiences, and heritage sites seek to design distinctive and unique destinations to build their competitive advantage.

Authenticity is a subjective response to an experience encountered outside of the boundary of daily life (Chhabra et al., 2003; Kim & Jamal, 2007), and it denotes a sense of traditional culture and origin (Chhabra et al., 2003). Although authenticity has been a highly contentious notion, consensual agreement has emerged in terms of its subjective nature (Reisinger & Steiner, 2006; Robinson & Clifford, 2012; Wang, 1999). Both constructivism and the postmodern perspective seem to concur that authenticity is less an intrinsic property of products and services and more a personal interpretation, generated through the relationships between tourists and the environment. Wang (1999) argued that when tourists engage in activities or purchase souvenirs, they are not concerned about whether these are authentic, but instead they are searching for an authentic experience with the aid of these activities or objects. These perspectives recognize the existential approach to authenticity, which maintains that an individual’s perception and interpretation are privileged, yet also acknowledges the power of objects as the referential point of departure for perceiving authenticity (Robinson & Clifford, 2012). The importance of heritage objects in the analysis of authenticity has been highlighted by Belhassen, Caton, and Stewart’s (2008) studies of religious contexts. In these environments, while acknowledging the role played by the broader cultural ideologies that help to develop the meaning of a setting, Belhassen et al. showed that tourists’ sense of authenticity depends on the actual setting (e.g., sacred sites characterized by religious objects and signs) in which visitors experience feelings of being true to themselves and their beliefs.

It follows that tourists are neither superficial visitors who are satisfied with commodified settings nor the victims of staged authenticity. Rather, this perspective implies that tourists are able to perceive the authentic (or other) character of places as they use and consume physical and cultural elements. Authentication is a process whereby emotions and feelings emerge through the ongoing interaction between individual agency and material elements (Zhu, 2012). As pointed out by Waitt (2000), these material elements are cultural signifiers in that they provide sources of learning and serve to signify perceived authenticity.

Tourists will differ in the evaluation of material elements that they regard as being necessary to authenticate an event or a cultural setting. Beverland and Farrelly (2010) illustrated that different interpretations of authenticity are often a by-product of the personal goal that influences the identification of context properties as significant and relevant. When conferring authenticity to objects such as events, artifacts, or buildings, tourists realize positive identity benefits in the form of a favorable characterization of the true self. In the case of the Texas Renaissance Festival, discussed by Kim and Jamal (2007), visitors gave preferential treatment to notions of freedom and liberation in their assessment of authenticity. Within a liminal tourist space, conventional norms are often temporally suspended as tourists take advantage of their relative anonymity and freedom from community scrutiny. This liberation enables participants to develop an experience that leads them toward an authentic sense of self. Belhassen et al.’s (2008) study of pilgrimage experience reveals that religious visitors judged the authenticity of places by focusing on whether they were allowed an intimate, unmediated relationship with God (e.g., seeing the work of God). Other researchers, such as Beverland and Farrelly (2010), offered a useful typology of benefits that visitors use as standards when assessing the authenticity of destinations. These benefits are control, or the desire to achieve mastery over the environment to affirm identify and self; connection, or the desire to feel associated with something or form part of a community; and virtue, or the willingness to stay true to one’s morals as well as the spiritual enrichment that comes from seeing universal values in practice. It is worth noting that according to Beverland and Farrelly (2010), these individual standards reflect wider sociocultural narratives. For example, accounts of morality may be based on widely held beliefs of purity, innocence, nonmaterialism, or freedom from self-interest.

It therefore follows that there is a need to examine the circumstances under which cultural and heritage tourism provides tourists with authentic experiences. Because heritage is related to the past and to existence and belonging, the nature of heritage settings involves a perfomative act of appropriating, interpreting, and communicating aspects of the past through performance, stories, texts, events, and physical sites (Jamal & Kim, 2005). Theoretical developments in the field of tourism (Cohen & Cohen, 2012; Jamal & Kim, 2005) have shown that destinations should no longer be viewed as independent, static places but rather as dynamic products of the performance acts of a multitude of entities. Host, guests, buildings, and objects are brought together to configure places as nodes of performative acts. In heritage sites, which act as symbols of distinctiveness under conditions of cultural homogenization and globalization, the negotiation of authenticity might be viewed as inevitable (Halewood & Hannam 2001).

Such negotiations occur, for example, among marketing agents, government institutions, city councils, heritage organizations, entrepreneurial associations, and local resident groups, each with their own agenda and view regarding the appropriate strategy and image for an event. There are activities and material elements that are produced mainly for sale and display rather than for use by the local community itself. This occurs partly because there is strong economic pressure within the business community and partly because of outside political pressure to widen the range of economic activities, including an increase in the supply of staged heritage. Cohen and Cohen (2012) pointed out that heritage sites are profoundly suffused by ideological and political considerations, as national and other authorities exploit them to strengthen their own legitimation. In a study of a heritage site in Australia, Waitt (2000) illustrated that the commodified version of history presented at the site was based on the rhetoric of Australian nationalism and silenced alternative versions of the past that highlight oppression and conflict among social groups. Critical views of tourism claim that the global production of tourism decontextualizes, mediates, and sensationalizes the commodification and production of cultural and heritage tourism for consumption by visitors (Jamal & Kim, 2005).

Few authors of event studies (e.g., Cohen & Cohen, 2012; Robinson & Clifford, 2007, 2012) have shown that authenticity and event planners’ interests may be mutually beneficial. Cohen and Cohen (2012) have indicated that postmodern tourists might revel in enjoying simulacra in a world devoid of originals. Festival studies illustrate that festival organizers add cultural elements to the original experience to fulfill the requirements of modern tourists and tourism sectors (Grayson & Martinec, 2004). In the same vein, Kim and Jamal (2007) showed that liminal spaces such as festivals generate existential authenticity, which provides participants with an opportunity to live natural and primitive experiences and feel less constrained by social norms and routines.

Other authors, however, warn that tourism initiatives that are created and offered for commercial purposes necessarily lose destination authenticity (e.g., MacCannell, 1973). Gotham (2002) also pointed out that whereas public actors fostered the marketization of Mardi Gras, local residents viewed the resulting commodification of this event as a way of devaluing the celebration for the city. In their analysis of the Camino de Santiago, Murray and Graham (1997) discussed the conflict among varying demands, which complicates the marketing of the Camino as a tourism product. Pilgrims may encounter difficulty in gaining access to its sacred sites, and for some, the quality of worship could suffer because their needs are sacrificed at the expense of the ubiquitous mass tourist.

Thus, the primary objective of tourism and festival providers is to improve the quality of the event’s attributes to enhance visitor satisfaction and loyalty (Baker & Crompton, 2000). Loyalty is an attempt on the part of tourists to go beyond overt behavior and express their loyalty in terms of psychological commitment or a statement of future preference (Yoon & Uysal, 2005). Satisfaction, which is considered a strong antecedent of loyalty (Chen & Chen, 2010; Chi & Qu, 2008; Oliver, 1999; Yoon et al., 2010; Yoon & Uysal, 2005), refers to a state of mind achieved after exposure to an opportunity (Baker & Crompton, 2000). Higher quality facility provision, programming, and services are therefore likely to result in a higher level of satisfaction. The primary motivation of event organizers regarding investing efforts in improving event attributes is to enhance tourist satisfaction, because such improvements will result in increased revenue.

Consequently, the challenge is to strike a balance between providing accurate information and at the same time engaging the interest of the visitors in a stimulating manner (Goulding, 2000; Kasim, 2011). Although some effort has been made in tourism and event literature to study the relationship between event attributes and behavioral intentions (Robinson & Clifford, 2012), very little information is available about the relationship among the material objects of an event, event perceived authenticity, satisfaction, and loyalty. The perceived authenticity of an event, which may be influenced by the total configuration of the program, the material artifacts for exhibition and sale, the environment, and the people, has not been widely examined. The analysis presented here not only provides a confirmatory conceptualization of the role played by perceived event attributes and authenticity in behavioral intentions, but also advances current research regarding the role that event attributes and organization have on the emergence of authentic experiences.

Hypotheses Development

Against the above background, we propose the model illustrated in Figure 1. Based on the consumer-based perspective, the model investigates the relationship among the quality of event attributes, perceived authenticity, satisfaction, and loyalty. Specifically, the quality of event attributes is shown to affect event perceived authenticity and event satisfaction. Event perceived authenticity influences event satisfaction and also affects event loyalty. Finally, event satisfaction affects event loyalty.

Figure 1

The Conceptual Model

The link between loyalty and satisfaction has been exhaustively studied in both tourism and marketing literature. According to Oliver (1999), satisfaction is a fairly temporal state for on-time or repeat consumption that reflects how the product or service has fulfilled its purpose. Tourists’ level of satisfaction is based on the comparison between expectations about the destination before the visit and the actual experience. If the latter is better than the former, then the tourist will be satisfied and more willing to visit the destination again. If the experience is worse than the expectations, then the tourist will be dissatisfied and is more likely to choose alternative destinations on future occasions. A number of studies have shown that satisfaction has been a strong predictor of behavioral intentions in the posttrip phase (Chi & Qu, 2008; Kaplanidou & Vogt, 2007). Loyalty is an important goal for event planners and cities because it is a key component for a destination’s long-term sustainability. It can be conceptualized as a long-term relation between visitors and the specific event or destination. Loyalty is expressed through visitors’ specific desire to revisit the tourist destination and to recommend it to other people. Satisfied customers are more likely to return to the destination, and they are more willing to share their positive experiences with friends and families. We therefore posit the following.

H1: Event satisfaction positively affects event loyalty

Our model includes the consequences of perceived authenticity. Wang (1999) pointed out that modern tourists seek authentic experiences and feelings generated by nonordinary activities, away from home or free of the constraints of daily life. It follows, therefore, that tourists may become loyal to places or events that provide nonordinary experiences, because the individuals’ need to achieve authentic experiences may have a long-term character. As pointed out by extant literature on authenticity (see, e.g., Chhabra et al., 2003), nostalgic feelings and the re-creation of the past are enduring aspects of modern life, so those destinations that will achieve authenticity are likely to develop long-term relationships with tourists. Kolar and Zabkar’s (2010) study on cultural heritage tourism demonstrated that existential authenticity has a strong and positive effect on loyalty. Recently, Robinson and Clifford (2012) illustrated empirically that intentions to revisit an event are positively related to perceived food service authenticity and the servicescape (i.e., the event environment, atmospherics, and ambience). In contrast, tourists may consider that a destination offers experiences that are rarely authentic but, rather, are illusionary or staged representations of the real life of others. When an event is perceived by tourists as commodified or less distinctive, it loses its appeal, and tourists may be less willing to revisit the destination or recommend it to other people. Despite the fact that there is some literature that assesses the link between authenticity and loyalty in the context of events and festivals, Robinson and Clifford (2012) pointed out that there is a lack of empirical evidence to substantiate this proposition. For this reason, we shall assess Hypothesis 2.

H2: Perceived existential authenticity positively affects event loyalty

Perceived authenticity may be viewed as an activity-based experience (Kim & Jamal, 2007; Wang, 1999) that depends heavily on the practical use and consumption of material objects and social activities provided during the event. From this perspective, it follows that tourists’ authentic perceptions in the context of heritage settings are assessed by relating them to initial images and knowledge regarding the event. Given the centrality of nonordinary and genuine experiences in modern tourism, people will be more satisfied if the event provides them with authentic experiences (Chhabra et al., 2003). Otto and Ritchie (1996) argued that subjective and internal reactions experienced by visitors when consuming a service positively affect satisfaction. Chhabra et al. (2003) argued that because people are nostalgic about past ways of life and wish to relive them in the form of tourism, they value the re-creation of surviving memories and activities in a positive light. Their empirical analysis confirms a positive correlation between perceived authenticity—which, for Chhabra et al., is consistent with nostalgia for some real or imagined past—and expenditure at events. Recently, Robinson and Clifford (2012) found that the perceived authenticity of food contributed to event satisfaction. Kolar and Zabkar (2010) pointed out that although the notion of satisfaction has been extensively analyzed in tourism literature, the lack of empirical examination of its relatedness with authenticity is evident. This provides an additional argument for further research into these influences. Thus, we posit the following.

H3: Perceived existential authenticity positively affects event satisfaction

Otto and Ritchie (1996) argued that tourism is essentially a service industry, and consequently the quality or performance of service attributes should affect the subjective personal reactions experienced by tourists when visiting a destination. The quality of service attributes is concerned with the performance of service itself and may be viewed as under the direct control of the service providers (Chen & Chen, 2010; Lee et al., 2008; Yoon et al., 2010). Service attributes derive from visitors’ perception of the event features. Consequently, a perceived high-performance service could result in a high level of satisfaction. In the context of events and festival studies, Brake and Crompton (2000) established a relationship between the perception of quality of environmental features (i.e., general and specific features, information sources, and comfort amenities) and behavioral outcomes. They found that perceived quality of generic and specific features was closely linked to behavioral intentions. Information sources and comfort amenities were found to have a weak effect on satisfaction. Recently, Lee et al. (2008) coined the term festivalscape—in reference to program content, staff, facility availability, food perceptions, souvenir availability, convenience, and information availability—to indicate the general atmosphere experienced by festival patrons. Overall, their study demonstrated that festivalscape cues displayed a positive relationship with satisfaction. Our study therefore posits that the quality of event attributes contributes to event satisfaction, as follows.

H4: The quality of event attributes positively affects event satisfaction

The relationship between the quality of event attributes and event authenticity has received only scant attention in literature. When organizing events, there is always the risk of negative impacts such as the commercialization of activities, price increases during the event, ecological damage, or noise. Given the experiential nature of events, they have the potential to powerfully enhance visitors’ perceptions or, likewise, to generate a negative perception of event authenticity when handled without the necessary professional approach (Crowther, 2010). Yeoman, Brass, and McMahon-Beattie (2007) pointed out that the authentic experience is about avoiding areas and activities in which there are many other tourists, indicating a desire to explore the untouched and unexposed. The challenge therefore is to ensure, through effective planning and management, that events deliver a broadly coherent attendee experience that is consistent with the event’s main theme (Chalip & McGuirty, 2004; Crowther, 2010; Florek & Insch, 2011; Kaplanidou & Vogt, 2007). Robinson and Clifford (2007) studied how food and beverage augmented the perceived authenticity of events. Their findings indicated that food and beverage are considered to be expressive of a region, a community, and its culture. They can be used to reduce the effect of homogenization by building differentiation for a destination or a community. Managing identity and constructing an image that effectively reaches the appropriate target for an event extend authenticity. In a study of the Punggi Ginseng Festival, Yoon et al. (2010) pointed out that festival organizers ensured that authenticity was attached to the tourists’ experiences: For example, the Ginseng Festival provides ginseng juice, ginseng fries, and a variety of food associated with ginseng. Grayson and Martinec (2004) observed that touring historic buildings can provide a direct link between contemporary visitors and historical periods by offering the experience of traveling back into the past. Consequently, we can advance the following hypothesis.

H5: The quality of event attributes positively affects perceived event authenticity

There is growing evidence that customer satisfaction is a full mediator in the relationship between customer consumption emotions and customer repeat-visit intentions (Han & Back, 2008; Han, Back, & Barrett, 2009). Consumption-based emotions, which are antecedents of satisfaction, are likely to influence visitors’ intentions through customer satisfaction because overall satisfaction with a product or service experience is generally believed to be a requisite for intentions to revisit, complain, or recommend. Consistent with this view, we have analyzed whether event satisfaction mediates the relationship between authenticity and event loyalty. Although the mediating role of satisfaction in the authenticity–loyalty relationship has been advanced and argued in recent research, the empirical validation of this proposition is extremely limited (Kolar & Zabkar, 2010). Drawing on the activity-based perspective (Kim & Jamal, 2007; Wang, 1999), it is argued that satisfaction in conjunction with event authenticity determine event loyalty. Given that authenticity is experienced outside of the boundary of daily life, authentic experience does not guarantee loyalty because tourists have to assess whether it has fulfilled their expectations and personal needs. This suggests that the intention to revisit an event occurs when authenticity and satisfaction are aligned. We therefore propose to examine whether satisfaction acts as a mediating variable in the transformation of authentic experience into tourists’ intention to revisit.

H6: Event satisfaction has a mediating role in the relationship between event authenticity and event loyalty

Sample and Data Collection Procedure

Case Study

The study was conducted using a sample of tourists visiting the 2010 Holy Year in Santiago de Compostela, a city in the northwest of Spain that is famous for the Camino de Santiago. The Camino de Santiago is a pilgrimage route made up of various ways that, starting from a number of European cities, cross northern Spain before converging on the city of Santiago de Compostela. The Camino de Santiago has existed for more than a thousand years and combines the cult of the shrine of Saint James the Great with cultural consumption (Tilson, 2005). The Camino is inextricably linked with heritage tourism and to a continuous reimaging of culture that draws its inspiration from nostalgia, memory, and tradition. The promotion of Santiago de Compostela as a cult center positioned it among the principal religious shrines of medieval Europe, second only to Rome.

Pope Callistus II initiated a Jubilee or Holy Year Privilege in 1119, granting a plenary indulgence and other spiritual rewards to travelers who visited St. James’s tomb in a year when the Feast of St. James falls on a Sunday (Tilson, 2005). Among other religious practices, pilgrims achieve indulgence by passing through the Holy Door, which is open only during Holy Years. The Holy Year is a yearlong event that is not staged annually. In the past 20 years, they have taken place in 1993, 1999, 2004, and 2010.

Nowadays, the Holy Year attracts millions of visitors and is considered to be one of the world’s most important cultural and religious celebrations. According to the Spanish Institute of Statistics (INE, 2011), nearly 2 million people visited the 2010 Holy Year (1.3 million stayed overnight). Drawing on Chhabra et al. (2003), the Holy Year can be viewed as an authentic event, because it is celebrated by local and spiritual authorities following past tradition and honoring its origin and genuineness. The pilgrims, likewise, have the opportunity to achieve existential authenticity, because in their quest for indulgence, they experience spiritual reflection and meaning outside of the boundaries of their everyday lives.

Since 1993, a church–state partnership has linked Holy Year celebrations with a promotional event called Xacobeo, which aims to attract and increase the number of visitors—pilgrims and tourists alike—to Santiago de Compostela. During Holy Years, Xacobeo finances and organizes a full spectrum of cultural activities and workshops supported by promotional online and print advertising campaigns. The 2010 Holy Year and Xacobeo included souvenir exhibits, scientific conferences, concerts, sporting events, and international celebrity appearances. By drawing on event and tourism literature (Buchmann et al., 2010; Chhabra et al., 2003; Robinson & Cliford, 2012), it follows that the inclusion of products and services as part of the celebration of the traditional Holy Years—such as facilities, food, and souvenirs—may increase the event’s existential authenticity. In short, the modernization of the Holy Year celebrations offers an ideal context for studying the antecedents and consequences of authenticity.

Survey Instrument

The survey instrument used was developed following a comprehensive review of the relevant literature pertaining to festivals and heritage tourism (Baker & Crompton, 2000; Kolar & Zabkar, 2010; Lee et al., 2008; Yoon et al., 2010; Yoon & Uysal, 2005). Four academic experts who were familiar with the topic under study assessed the content and face validity of the survey. To evaluate individual item content, clarity of instructions, and response format, we tested the questionnaire in a series of face-to-face settings with 15 managers involved in tourism operations in Santiago de Compostela. The final questionnaire was translated into five languages: English, Spanish, Italian, French, and German. The questionnaire consisted of the following major sections: The first includes questions about the quality of service attributes; the second, questions related to authenticity; the third, questions related to satisfaction and loyalty; and the final section was designed to gather information about the respondents’ demographic characteristics and travel behavior.

Measures

The survey instrument was derived from previous literature pertaining to events and heritage settings. Following Yoon and Uysal (2005), Lee et al. (2008), and Yoon et al. (2010), we measured loyalty by integrating the behavioral and attitudinal approaches. Using three 5-point items (from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree), we asked respondents to answer the following questions: I will recommend this event to my friends and neighbors, I will visit this festival again next time, and I will say positive things about this festival to other people.

Drawing on Yoon and Uysal (2005), measures of event satisfaction were developed by combining the expectation–disconfirmation model, equity theory, and the perceived performance model. Accordingly, we assessed satisfaction by four 5-point items (from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree): I am satisfied with my visit to the event; How does the Holy Year rate compared with what you expected? Was this visit worth your time and effort? And Overall, I am satisfied with this event (Lee et al., 2008; Yoon & Uysal, 2005).

Studies on the service sector have conceptualized the quality of event attributes as being multidimensional and hierarchical (Baker & Crompton, 2000; Bitner, 1992; Brady & Cronin, 2001; Clemes et al., 2011; Dabholkar, Thorpe, & Rentz, 1996; Gazzoli, Hancer, & Park, 2010). In other words, quality of service is viewed as a higher order factor that is defined by lower levels of attributes. According to Bitner (1992), “Though the dimensions of the environment are defined independently here, it is important to recognize that they are perceived by employees and customers as a holistic pattern of interdependent stimuli” (p. 65). In addition, Brady and Cronin (2001) recommended that service quality dimensions need to be confirmed for each research setting. We followed their recommendation, and by drawing on recent literature that used the service quality construct in festivals and event research (Baker & Crompton, 2000; Lee et al., 2008; Yoon et al., 2010), we identified several dimensions that can influence visitors’ perceptions in the context of religious and long-term events, namely, food, information, programming, souvenirs, and facilities. Visitors were asked to rate their perceptions on a scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) based on the service quality delivered by various organizations and institutions in Santiago de Compostela. Examples of the items used in the scale included the following: Souvenirs in the shops are varied, The event program was interesting, and The atmosphere of the event site was good. The items used in our service quality construct are presented in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1

Confirmatory Factor Analysis: Construct Measurement Models and Reliability

Constructs and Items	Standardized Loadings	t Value	Tolerance	VIF
Program (CR* = 0.96 ; VE** = 0.82)			0.69	1.44
Source: Lee et al. (2008) and Yoon et al. (2010)
Program was varied.	0.927
Well-designed Holy Year program	0.765	12.585
Interesting program	0.907	9.438
Program related to the Holy Year	0.756	7.859
Facility (CR* = 0.82 ; VE** = 0.78)			0.84	1.19
Source: Lee et al. (2008) and Yoon et al. (2010)
Cleanliness of event site	0.927
Atmosphere of event site	0.765	10.085
Layout and buildings around event site	0.907	8.438
Souvenirs (CR* = 0.84 ; VE** = 0.69)			0.57	1.75
Source: Lee et al. (2008) and Yoon et al. (2010)
Souvenirs were varied.	0.927
Souvenirs were of high quality.	0.765	12.539
Prices of souvenirs were reasonable.	0.907	18.908
Information (CR = 0,86; VE = 0.61)			0.90	1.11
Source: Lee et al. (2008) and Yoon et al. (2010)
Signage enhanced my understanding of direction.	0.919
Ease of access	0.741	10.844
Availability of travel information for peer review	0.615	8.410
Food (CR = 0.88; VE = 0.65)			0.74	1.35
Source: Lee et al. (2008) and Yoon et al. (2010)
Food was varied.	0.694
Food tasted good.	0.892	10.055
Food price was reasonable.	0.896	10.085
Available traditional food	0.727	8.438
Event perceived authenticity (CR = 0.81; VE= 0.53)			0.84	1.19
Source: Kolar and Zabkar (2010)
During my visit, I felt the related history, legends, and historical personalities.	0.781
I enjoyed the unique religious and spiritual experience.	0.739	8.536
I liked the calm and peaceful atmosphere during the visit.	0.786	8.884
Event satisfaction (CR = 0.83; VE = 0.72)			0.83	1.20
Source: Yoon and Uysal (2005) and Lee et al. (2008)
I am satisfied with my visit to this event.	1.000
How does the Holy Year rate compared to what you expected?	0.670	11.334
Was this visit worth your time and effort?	0.745	9.764
Overall, I am satisfied with this event.	0.854	8.832
Festival loyalty (CR = 0.78; VE = 0.54)			0.58	1.72
Source: Yoon and Uysal (2005) and Lee et al. (2008)
I will visit this festival again next time.	0.777
I will say positive things about this festival to other people.	0.714	4.832
Model fit indices are as follows: chi square = 231.7; df = 161(p = 0.076); CFI = 0.985; TLI = 0.982; IFI = 0.983; RMSEA = 0.030.

Composite reliability (CR) (Bagozzi & Yi, 1988).

Variance extracted (VE) (Fornell & Larcker, 1981).

Table 2

Convergent and Discriminant Validity Tests

Construct	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
1. Event loyalty	0.72
2. Event satisfaction	0.578	0.84
3. Event perceived authenticity	0.137	0.123	0.72
4. Food	0.244	0.224	−0.095	0.80
5. Information	0.130	0.160	0.284	0.138	0.78
6. Facility	0.184	0.215	0.010	0.389	0.306	0.88
7. Program	0.275	0.186	−0.228	0.341	0.232	0.220	0.90
8. Souvenirs	0.209	0.137	−0.173	0.531	0.256	0.371	0.664	0.83

Note: Correlations in the lower triangle and square root of the average variance extracted on the diagonal.

The perceived authenticity was measured by drawing on the scale developed by Kolar and Zabkar (2010). We used the existential component of authenticity, as it relates to the perceptions, feelings, and emotions of site visitors, such as the uniqueness of the spiritual experience and a feeling of connectedness to religion and pilgrimage. Existential authenticity was assessed according to four items on a 5-point scale (from 1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree): I like the calm and peaceful atmosphere during the visit; I enjoyed the unique religious and spiritual experience; During my visit, I felt connected with the history of the Holy Year; and I like the special arrangements, events, and concerts connected to the site.

Data Collection

The survey was conducted on tourists who traveled to Santiago de Compostela to attend the Holy Year celebrations. The data collection was conducted within Santiago’s World Heritage Site—namely, around the Cathedral and at the main exits of events and activities organized by Xacobeo. The field researchers approached the visitors, outlined the purpose of the study, and invited them to participate in the survey. After obtaining the visitors’ consent, the field researchers completed the questionnaire by conducting a personal interview. Small gifts and a free guided tour around the historic 800-year-old buildings of the Royal University of Santiago de Compostela were given to encourage participation. The interviewers were instructed to follow the quota sample with regard to visitors’ nationality (i.e., domestic or international travelers). This distinction is not reflected in further analysis because visitors do not differ in terms of their appraisal of authenticity, loyalty, and satisfaction. To increase the number of usable questionnaires, respondents who had just arrived at the venue or who had not visited events, shops, and buildings were not included in the survey. Moreover, the data were collected in the mornings and afternoons to obtain a wide distribution of respondents. A total of 615 people were approached, and a response rate of 65% was obtained. A total of 400 complete responses were obtained from 419 returned questionnaires. In the majority of cases, the reason for unusable questionnaires was the considerable amount of data missing from a number of key variables, due to the respondents’ unwillingness or lack of time to answer all of the items included in the questionnaire.

The demographic characteristics of the respondents are presented in Table 3. More females (51.5%) than males (48.5%) were interviewed. Most respondents were aged between 50 and 59 years (22%), followed by those between 60 and 69 (19%). Those with college or university degrees accounted for 42%, and 47% of the sample had an annual income of between 25,001 to 50,000 euros. In terms of country of origin, Europeans accounted for 57%. White-collar workers were 19%, compared to 14% sales employees.

Table 3

Demographic Characteristics of Respondents

Category	Frequency	Percentage
Gender
Male	194	48.5
Female	206	51.5
Total	400	100
Age range (years)
<30	48	12
30–39	61	16
40–49	75	18
50–59	88	22
60–69	77	19
70+	51	13
Total	400	100
Marital status
Married	277	70
Single	123	30
Total	400	100
Annual income (euros)
<15,000	72	18
15,001–25,000	96	24
25,001–50,000	188	47
50,001–100,000	28	7
>100,000	16	4
Total	400	100
Occupation
Student	52	13
Home duties	32	8
Unemployed	28	7
Blue collar	64	10
White collar	52	19
Sales employee	56	14
Professionals	32	8
Entrepreneurs	36	9
Retired	48	12
Total	400	100
Country of origin
Europe and Russia	228	57
Africa	28	7
North America	60	15
South America	52	13
Asia and Australasia	32	8
Total	400	100
Education
Elementary	32	8
High school	88	22
College	168	42
University	112	28
Total	400	100

Analysis and Results

Measurement Model Reliability and Validity

Even though the scales used had already been validated by literature, they were all submitted to a process of validation by means of exploratory factor analysis (EFA). The number of factors was determined by consulting the scree plot and with reference to Keiser’s eigenvalue > 1 criterion, and with an oblique rotation applied to aid interpretation of the resulting solution (Hair, Black, Babin, & Anderson, 2010). Items with loadings lower than 0.4 were eliminated. Five underlying dimensions of event service quality were derived from factor analysis, thereby confirming the multidimensional nature of this construct (see the appendix). The factors resulting from EFA were program, food, facility, information, and souvenirs. The commonalities of the 17 items range from 0.65 to 0.90, suggesting that the variances of each original variable could be explained by the five-factor solution. Factor loadings of the variables range from 0.658 to 0.923, higher than the threshold value suggested by Hair et al. (2010). The five factors accounted for 69.3% of variance. For the construct authenticity, three items grouped together as indicators of a single factor, explaining 62.3% of variance. One item was dropped due to low factor loading (lower than 0.4). Factor loadings of the variables range from 0.789 to 0.658, exceeding the minimum threshold. Items representing event satisfaction were found to be part of the same underlying construct, which accounts for 78.35% of the variance. Factor loadings of the variables range from 0.789 to 0.705, which is higher than the recommended minimum threshold. Finally, two items loaded on the construct event loyalty, explaining 89.12% of total variance. Factor loadings of the variables exceed the recommended threshold. One item was eliminated as a result of low factor loading.

To verify the hypothesized factor structure, the items and constructs were examined by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using AMOS version 18. Discriminant validity, convergent validity, and scale reliability were assessed by CFA in line with the paradigm advocated by Gerbing and Anderson (1988). In CFA, each item is restricted to load on its prespecified factor. Table 1 shows the results obtained from the estimation of the CFA model. The results suggest that the scale measures were internally consistent, were able to discriminate, and provided a good fit of the factor model to the data.

An inspection of these results shows that the items employed to measure the constructs were both valid (in terms of convergent validity and discriminant validity) and reliable (in terms of composite reliability and variance extracted). More specifically, convergent validity is evidenced by the large and significant standardized loadings (t > 1.96, p < .05) of the items on the respective constructs. Discriminant validity, on the other hand, was assessed by observing the construct intercorrelations (Table 2). These were significantly different from 1, and the shared variance between any two constructs (i.e., the square of their intercorrelation) was less than the average variance explained by the items in the construct (Fornell & Larcker 1981). Moreover, tolerance and variance inflation factors (VIFs) were used to assess both pairwise and multiple variable collinearity. Small tolerance values and large VIF values denote high collinearity. A common cutoff threshold is a tolerance value lower than 0.10, which corresponds to VIF values higher than 10.00 (Hair et al., 2010). As indicated in Table 1, the lowest tolerance value was 0.58, and its inverse of highest values of VIF was 1.72; these are considered acceptable (Hair et al., 2010).

Regarding the reliability of the constructs, Table 1 presents the results of composite reliability and variance extracted. The values for composite reliability, ranging from 0.96 for program to 0.78 for event loyalty, considerably exceed Bagozzi and Yi’s (1988) recommended minimum level of 0.60. We can therefore conclude that for all constructs, the indicators were sufficient and adequate in terms of how the measurement model was specified.

Consistent with previous research (Bitner, 1992; Brady & Cronin, 2001; Clemes et al., 2011; Dabholkar et al., 1996; Gazzoli et al., 2010; Lee et al., 2008), the construct quality event attributes was hypothesized to have a second-order factor structure, with food, souvenir, facility, program, and information as its first-order factors. The overall fit parameters of a second-order CFA model show a satisfactory fit to the data (chi square = 152; df = 72; CFI = 0.955; IFI = 0.956; RMSEA = 0.050). The first-order loadings on the higher order factor are 0.957 for souvenirs, 0.716 for facility, 0.757 for food, 0.672 for program, and 0.498 for information, and all second-factor loadings are significant.

Structural Model

Given the confirmatory nature of our research, structural equations were used by applying the maximum likelihood (ML) method. The fit measures for the model are presented in Figure 2. Given that all of the fit indices were within conventional cutoff values, the model was deemed acceptable because it reproduces the population covariance structure (Vandenberg & Lance, 2000). The relationships proposed in the model were examined next.

Figure 2

Final Model

Consistent with Hypothesis 1, the results indicate that the greater the satisfaction with the event, the higher the degree of loyalty to the event as indicated by a parameter estimated as 0.680 (p < 0.01). The results for H2 show that the relationship between event authenticity and event loyalty is nonsignificant (0.083; p > 0.01). As predicted by H3, the level of authenticity of the event has a significant positive impact on satisfaction with the event (0.295; p < 0.01). Supportive findings for H4 (0.283; p < 0.01) indicate that event satisfaction is positively influenced by event attributes. The results for H5 show that the relationship between the event attributes and event authenticity is negative and significant (−0.197; p < 0.01). To test the mediating relationships among perceived authenticity, event satisfaction, and event loyalty (H6), we followed the procedure suggested by Zhao et al. (2010), Ro (2012), and Hon and Lu (2010). For the significance of the mediation effect, the fit of the authenticity–satisfaction–loyalty model needed to be assessed under two conditions: (a) when authenticity–loyalty is constrained to zero, and (b) when authenticity–loyalty is not constrained. The χ² for the unconstrained model (χ2 = 303; df = 142) was smaller than that of the constrained model (χ² = 305 df = 143), although not significantly so (Δ χ2= 2; Δ df = 1; ns). If the two models do not differ significantly, it means that there is significant mediation (0.214, t = 3.54) and that the direct path between authenticity and loyalty does not improve the model fit when the mediator is taken into account (Ro, 2012). This suggests that satisfaction fully mediates the impact of perceived authenticity on tourists’ loyalty.

To assess the presence of model misspecification, our theoretical model (Mt) was tested against an alternative unconstrained model (Mu) following a procedure suggested by Anderson and Gerbing (1988). First, our theoretical model (Mt) was compared with the unconstrained model (Mu), in which we relaxed the path between event attributes and event loyalty. The χ² difference test between Mt and Mu (Δ χ² = 7.45; Δ df = 1) suggested that the unconstrained model was performing better than our theoretical model Mt. To further detect the effect of adding more causal relationships, it was necessary to examine the statistical significance of the parameters coefficient for the additional path. The causal relationship between event attributes and event loyalty was positively significant (0.132; p < 0.01). This relationship could be theoretically justified because tourists’ positive evaluation of various components of the event could lead directly to their loyalty to the event. As another means of comparison, a set of goodness-of-fit measures is also indicated to determine whether this unconstrained model has the best model fit. RMSEA is 0.053, CFI is 0.946, TLI is 0.929, and IFI is 0.946. The fit indexes and those for the theoretical model (Figure 1) were almost identical. It was therefore concluded that the alternative model could be retained as a viable alternative.

To rule out alternative explanations, one competing model was tested in this study. Model 2 specified that event authenticity is part of the second-order event attributes construct. Model 2 allows a direct path between the second-order construct event attributes and event satisfaction and loyalty. For Model 2, goodness-of-fit and practical indices were as follows: χ² = 393.98, df = 180, and RMSEA = 0.058. The difference in fit between this model and the baseline model suggests that the latter fits the data better than the former. A summary of alternative structural equation models is offered in Table 4.

Table 4

Competing Structural Equation Models

Model	χ², df	Δχ², Δ df,^a	CFI	TLI	IFI	RMSEA
MtMu	384.906, 179377.182, 178	7.45, 19.98, 1^b	0.9430.946	0.9270.929	0.9440.946	0.0540.053
M2	393.98, 180		0.941	0.925	0.942	0.058

Change assessed versus baseline model Mt.

Model offers significantly poor fit at p < 0.05.

Discussion and Implications

Leisure and event studies have frequently recognized that the quality of event attributes not only affects behavioral intentions but also influences emotion-based responses (Baker & Crompton, 2000; Lee et al., 2008; Otto & Ritchie, 1996). Perceived authenticity has emerged from recent research as having an explanatory capacity in relation to heritage experience (Beverland & Farrelly, 2010; Cohen & Cohen, 2012; Halewood & Hannam, 2001; Jamal & Kim, 2005; Kim & Jamal, 2007; Waitt, 2000). Our study contributes to this debate by assessing the antecedents and consequences of perceived authenticity in the context of international events organized in heritage destinations. Our model provides an explicit and confirmatory conceptualization of the relationship among the quality of event attributes, event perceived authenticity, satisfaction, and loyalty. Theoretically, this study contributes to existing knowledge on events by studying whether the staging of events influences the interpretation of event authenticity and establishing the effects of perceived authenticity on satisfaction and loyalty in international events.

Although this study confirms the positive relationship between event satisfaction and loyalty (e.g., Yoon & Uysal, 2005), it also demonstrates through a structural model that perceived authenticity has a strong and direct effect on event satisfaction, thereby confirming that the possibility of offering authentic experiences increases tourists’ satisfaction (Chhabra et al., 2003; Robinson & Clifford, 2012). While providing support for the importance of authenticity in heritage and religious settings (Andriotis, 2012; Beverland & Farrelly, 2010; Cohen & Cohen, 2012; Halewood & Hannam, 2001; Jamal & Kim, 2005; Kim & Jamal, 2007; Waitt, 2000), the positive relation between perceived authenticity and satisfaction found in this study of the Holy Year suggests that visitors expect to be transported to some other reality and experience a pleasurable sense of fulfilment when they engage in a cultural or spiritual experience devoid of the distractions of their daily lives. This result provides organizers of global events such as the 2010 Holy Year in Santiago de Compostela with a key success factor, namely, that events should take place in contexts where material objects and social factors allow visitors to immerse themselves in and revive the past, discovering new feelings, facilitating inner change, and furthering prior knowledge about heritage contexts. Moreover, our results show that event satisfaction is a critical factor in mediating the loyalty impact of perceived authenticity. In our model, the mere state of authenticity would not automatically yield higher event loyalty unless it is associated with satisfaction. This mediating effect would suggest that there is an underlying mechanism of need fulfilment through which event authenticity contributes to tourists’ loyalty. In other words, the staged event needs to satisfy visitors’ expectations (e.g., cultural enrichment, tradition, and spirituality), which may be viewed as major requisites for intentions to revisit or recommend the event. Our findings regarding the indirect effects on loyalty of perceived authenticity broaden those of previous related research (Kolar & Zabkar, 2010; Robinson & Clifford, 2012) by providing novel empirical evidence of the critical role of satisfaction in mediating between event authenticity and tourists’ intentions to revisit.

In the specific context of religious and cultural events, the findings indicated that not only event authenticity but also the quality of event attributes increase event satisfaction. The strong link between satisfaction and event attributes suggests that the greatest potential for boosting visitor satisfaction is by ensuring the quality of the services offered. The strong relationship found between event attributes and loyalty supports this view. The perception of the quality of event attributes is more likely to motivate visitors to return to the event or recommend it to friends and family. From a managerial perspective, the strong link between event attributes and behavioral intentions is likely to be very useful, because event attributes fall within the control of event planners.

Our results show that the characteristics and quality of event attributes can preclude visitors’ perception of authenticity. This finding may indicate that when organizing events in religious and heritage settings, there is a risk of negative impacts such as the reconstruction of objects and activities, which may reduce their perceived authenticity. Drawing on Cohen and Cohen (2012) and Jamal and Kim (2005), heritage is related to history and tradition, and therefore a global event may be seen as a performative act of appropriating and reconstructing aspects of the past, with the intention of attracting visitors and increasing consumption. In the case of the 2010 Holy Year in Santiago de Compostela, restaurants and hotels providing food and accommodation; Xacobeo, which organizes events and provides information; and shops selling souvenirs are all geared toward profit, which may not be in line with people’s expectations and image of the Holy Year. One example of this is the specific content of the program of events organized by Xacobeo: The exhibitions and concerts often had only a very loose relation with the theme of the event and were held outside Santiago de Compostela. Although the chosen venues were all cities of considerable beauty within the autonomous region, they had few or no links to the spiritual route. Similarly, food and souvenirs available during the event were not carefully selected for their relevance and historical accuracy. Halewood and Hannam’s (2001) study of Viking heritage, for example, illustrated that the presentation of artifacts for purchase combined attraction with archaeological accuracy and an educational role. In the specific case of the 2010 Holy Year in Santiago de Compostela, food—with the ubiquitous presence of fast-food restaurants around the cathedral—and generic souvenirs had very little association with the wider sociocultural narratives underlying Holy Years.

The literature on heritage (Beverland & Farrelly, 2010; Wang, 1999) may offer further insights into the results obtained in the model because it demonstrates that visitors’ authentication processes depend on the benefits sought or expected within the setting. These benefits can be associated with wider sociocultural narratives or images pertaining to the tourist destination. The narratives concerning Santiago de Compostela’s Holy Years emerged throughout the centuries as the result of books and basic school knowledge, and more recently through mass media and films. These forms of communication associated the Holy Years with images of cultural enrichment, tradition, spirituality, and religious pilgrimage along the Camino de Santiago (Murray & Graham, 1997; Tilson, 2005). We may argue that visitors expect to discover these experiences when traveling during Holy Years. The spirituality offered by religious settings provides visitors with the opportunity for a perceptual engagement and inner change, and it authentically transfers people to some other reality (Andriotis, 2012). The narratives reconstructed within liminal spaces like the 2010 Holy Year should allow visitors to move away from the distractions of everyday life, and, through their gradual immersion into the setting, develop a sense of being true to themselves and their values. Drawing on Beverland and Farrelly (2010), those desired or expected benefits might be viewed as the criteria through which visitors actively scrutinized and assessed as significant and relevant the material objects presented in the 2010 Holy Year. Our results suggest that the benefits provided by material objects (e.g., the program, food, and souvenirs) were not associated with the established cultural and religious narratives, or at least were not presented to evoke wider cultural and religious narratives that attracted a large number of tourists to the Holy Year in Santiago de Compostela.

Drawing on literature on heritage (Andriotis, 2012) and Goulding (2000), it might be argued that these types of sites must preserve their originality and credibility. They should not be reconstructed for tourist consumption, as has occurred with those heritage attractions that have lost their credibility due to mass visitation and the associated overcommercialization. These findings might be used by event organizers to design a communication strategy and material objects for the event that not only cater for the needs of contemporary tourists but also take into account the event’s main theme (Florek & Insch, 2011). Although heritage and tourism links have been advocated by many, and certainly exist with regard to festivals, concerts, and staged performances, there will always be a certain degree of tension among these sectors. Prentice and Andersen (2003) assessed festivals in Edinburgh, looking at their roles in creating an image and generating tourism, ascertaining that it is precisely this kind of emphasis that leads to a backlash against the event.

This leads to a shift toward the supply rather than the demand side of authenticity (Chhabra et al., 2003). Event planners should organize activities and artifacts that help visitors to experience authenticity, because the perception of authentic experiences can be viewed as an additional driver of visitors’ overall satisfaction. As such, it is far more likely that event authenticity is determined by the coherence between the main theme and the attributes of the event, rather than the quality of those attributes. This argument is consistent with Crowther (2010), who has recently highlighted that event design and delivery often lack consistency and integration. This may create variable visitor experiences, leading to missed opportunities to underpin a long-term event strategy. International tourism operates in a market economy, and it is very much influenced by international market forces. Whenever new destinations emerge with cheaper or more attractive offerings, others will struggle to remain competitive (Kasim, 2011).

Limitations and Direction for Further Research

First and foremost, and given that our research focused on a religious event of global importance, it would be interesting to fully assess our model by examining other types of global events. Second, the appropriateness of the quantitative methodologies used in this research (the questionnaire and structural equation modeling) in examining a subjective notion like authenticity could be questioned. Although qualitative research informs debates into the conceptualization and meaning of authenticity, quantitative methodologies advance knowledge in those cases where the object of study is the systematic analysis of the relationships between authenticity and various tourism aspects or notions, which are central (or often critical) in tourism and hospitality research. Further research should attempt to capitalize on the strengths of different techniques and combine them in overall research projects (Bryman, 1984; Kolar & Zabkar, 2010). For example, results that were derived from survey data could be cross-checked against qualitative evidence, potentially leading to substantial theoretical progress. Third, the main objective of this study was to assess quality attributes for events that can be controlled by event planners. What we have not been able to ascertain is whether the relationships between these quality attributes and event authenticity are affected by tourists’ motivations, sociodemographic characteristics, or other social psychological states. To what extent are the relationships between the quality attributes of the event and existential authenticity contingent on the motivations and expectations of tourists? Drawing on Oliver’s (1999) loyalty framework, it might be argued that in the case of religious or cultural events in particular, loyalty and authenticity not only are consequences of product or service quality (e.g., in the cognitive stage), but also might be generated by an enduring commitment to revisit a destination. Moreover, it would be interesting to fully assess this model in the case of first-time and repeat visitors. Research into first-time and repeat visits (e.g., Chi, 2012) has revealed that repeat visitors were more satisfied with their travel experiences and were more likely to return to the destination. We might assume that previous visits or direct experience with a destination is likely to modify psychological states or the perceived authenticity of a destination. Greater familiarity with the destination tends to lead to more holistic, psychological, and unique experiences and images, whereas a lesser degree of familiarity may result in experiences based more on functional aspects and service performance. Finally, drawing on Urry (1990), further research might assess the extent to which the relationships included in the model are influenced by tourists’ sociodemographic characteristics. In the case of 2010 Holy Year, examined in this study, it might be assumed that Catholics and non-Catholics might evaluate the authenticity and satisfaction of the destination differently.

Footnotes

Appendix

Exploratory Factor Analysis

Quality of Service Attributes	Factor 1	Factor 2	Factor 3	Factor 4	Factor 5
Percentage of variance	28.12	14.7	10.6	8.5	7.4
Alpha	0.88	0.83	0.82	0.87	0.83
Items
Food was varied.	0.689	−0.143	−0.287	0.174	0.260
Food tasted good.	0.845	−0.023	−0.184	0.120	0.002
Food price was reasonable.	0.850	0.040	0.035	−0.024	0.302
Available traditional food	0.765	0.098	0.056	0.060	0.115
Program was varied.	0.106	0.913	−0.010	−0.020	0.028
Well-designed program	0.133	0.783	−0.233	0.102	−0.121
Interesting program	0.132	0.893	0.283	0.035	0.117
Holy Year program	0.162	0.725	0.017	0.146	0.158
Signage and direction	0.072	0.104	0.893	−0.047	0.200
Ease of access	0.326	0.181	0.789	0.020	0.085
Travel information	0.191	0.110	0.658	0.240	0.122
Prices of souvenirs	−0.003	0.047	−0.020	0.923	−0.127
Souvenir variety	0.164	−0.124	0.125	0.789	0.028
Souvenir quality	0.235	0.032	0.249	0.917	−0.175
Cleanliness of event site	0.154	0.126	0.036	−0.098	0.913
Atmosphere of event site	0.321	0.226	0.151	0.164	0.725
Layout and buildings	0.087	0.125	0.081	0.283	0.897
Event perceived authenticity					Factor 1
Percentage of variance					62.3
Alpha					0.71
Items
During my visit, I felt the related history, legends, and historical personalities.					0.695
I enjoyed the unique religious and spiritual experience.					0.789
I liked the calm and peaceful atmosphere during the visit.					0.658
I liked the special arrangements, events, and concerts connected to the site.					Dropped
Event satisfaction					Factor 1
Percentage of varianc					78.35
Alpha					0.91
Items
I am satisfied with my visit to this event.					0.705
How does the Holy Year rate compared to what you expected?					0.765
Was this visit worth your time and effort?					0.735
Overall, I am satisfied with this event.					0.789
Event loyalty					Factor 1
Percentage of variance					89.12
Alpha					0.81
Items
I will visit this festival again next time.					0.695
I will say positive things about this festival to other people.					0.789
I will recommend this event to friends and neighborhood.					Dropped

In Memoriam: The editors are saddened by the news of the recent passing of Simone Novello. His wife and co-author on this paper, Pilar Murias, shared the following about him: “Simone Novello sadly passed away at the age of 41, before seeing this paper published. As his wife and colleague, I would like it to be a tribute to his boundless energy and dedication for life, family, and research.”

Authors’ Note:

This work was supported by the Galician Regional Government, Spain (grant no. 193D).

Simone Novello was a Lecturer at the CESUGA-University College Dublin, Spain, and member of the Quantitative Methods Research Group at University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain. His research interests were in the area of international marketing strategy, regional economic development and event tourism. His articles have been published in Regional Studies, International Small Business Journal, and Management Learning, among others. Pilar Murias Fernandez (email: mdelpilar.murias@usc.es) is a Lecturer at the Faculty of Applied Economics, University of Santiago de Compostela, Spain. Her research interests are the economic impact of tourism, regional economic development, social indicators, and the assessment of efficiency through non-parametric methods. Her articles have been published in Regional Studies, Social Indicators Research, and The Empirical Economic Letters, among others.

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