The Five Constants: A Confucian Business Model for the Hospitality Industry

Ren

Ren, which is human empathic reciprocity and moral sentiments, is understood broadly as humanity (Nhan, 2019), humanness (Yao & Yao, 2000), benevolence (Ding, 2006), kindness (Liu & Stening, 2016), compassion (Ip, 2009), and human-heartedness (Wah, 2010). The concept of Ren yields multiple interpretations. When disciples asked Confucius about Ren, he defined it as respect, generosity, integrity, alertness, and benefaction. Confucius’s Book of Rites equated Ren with loving people. Ren is extended love and kindness to every person, every creature, and every form of life without discrimination. As Chenghao claimed in the book “Study of Ren” (識仁篇), a Ren-person perceives everything in the universe as one unified entity. Ren is sentimental empathy, “umanism and benevolence, love and affection, kindness and compassion” (Wah, 2010, p. 282). Ren is the most precious quality for people’s interrelating. According to the Analects, dignified people would not impair Ren to survive, instead, they would sacrifice themselves to achieve Ren.

Yi

Yi is moral judgment and virtuous conduct based on Ren. It is translated as appropriateness (Yeung & Tung, 1996), righteousness (Yao & Yao, 2000), goodness (Liu & Stening, 2016), or courage (Low & Ang, 2013). Confucian scholar Guanzhong (管仲) advocated that Li (propriety), Yi (righteousness), Lian (honor), and Chi (shame) are the four dimensions of the state. Zhuxi explained, Yi is the mind–heart judgment and the appropriate conduct. Liu and Stening (2016, p. 825) understood Yi as right action based on good judgment. The emphasis in Yi conduct is on proactivity and practicality. Yi not only is a vital moral code for self-cultivation but also acts as a guideline for interpersonal relationships.

There are no standardized rules of conduct for Yi. The understanding of Yi is scenario based and it depends on different relationships, circumstances, and interactions (Liu & Stening, 2016). Yi does not mean unconditional kindness; instead, it indicates moral rightness, discernibility, and right attitude, action, and relationship (Ip, 2009). As Confucius advocated, repay resentment with Yi, and repay virtues with virtues. In the Book of Rites, the ten rules of Yi were defined as kind father, filial son, well-behaved elder brother, humble younger brother, righteous husband, obedient wife, wise senior, submissive junior, benevolent ruler, and loyal subject.

Li

Li represents the social circumstances and rules of conduct defined by Ren. Li is translated as ritual (Yeung & Tung, 1996), rites (Jacobs et al., 1995), courtesy and politeness (Low & Ang, 2013), etiquette (Romar, 2004), and propriety (Liu & Stening, 2016). Originally from the aristocratic worship rituals of the Zhou dynasty, Li obtained more humanitarian significance and expanded to include the concepts of etiquette, ritual, reciprocity, moral order, and social norms. Shen Fengsheng (沈鳳笙) broadly defined Li as all the political, religious and criminal law, the bureaucratic system and national rituals whereas the narrow definition referred to rites of worship, funerals, court attendance, military, adulthood passage, and marriage for the aristocracy. Ren is the inner quality and source of Li, while Li is the presence of Ren in the social sphere. Confucius asked how a person could perform Li without Ren.

Li internalizes moral codes and social order by implementing a series of external norms and regulations (Liu & Stening, 2016). According to Wang Anshi (王安石), a poet and politician of the Song dynasty, the purpose of Li is to rule the subjects. Fei (1992, p. 100) argued that Confucian society is governed by the “rule of Li” rather than the “rule of law.” According to Confucianism, society is managed and people are educated under Li-oriented folk customs. Through the practice of Li, people’s acceptance of social hierarchy and obedience to social order has been reinforced. If people can perform Li according to their status, social harmony can be achieved. As the Book of Rites elucidated, the purpose of Li is to determine the distance of interpersonal relationships, to judge suspicion, to discern differences and similarities, and to tell right from wrong. A person with Li does neither please others nor make promises easily. According to Li, people do not behave beyond the limits of status, do not insult others, and do not ingratiate themselves with others. So-called virtuous conduct is to cultivate virtue and live up to promises, and the essence of Li is about a person’s virtuous speech and conduct.

Zhi

In Confucianism, Zhi is endowed with the dual meanings of zhì (wisdom, 智) and zhī (knowledge, 知). Those two words are occasionally interchangeable. The ancient philosopher Xunzi (荀子) distinguished between the two meanings as follows: zhì is the ability to learn, whereas zhī is the result of learning. Zhangzai (張載), a philosopher and politician of the Song dynasty, understood zhī as experience-based wisdom and zhì as morality-based wisdom. In Confucian understanding, being virtuous is considered to be more advanced than being knowledgeable, and thus, the transformation from zhī to zhì is the achievement of real Zhi.

Confucius considered that the ultimate purpose of Zhi was to achieve Ren. Confucius emphasized the order of Zhi and Ren to his disciples: Give indiscriminate love to achieve Ren, then use your remaining energy to achieve Zhi. Zhi is the path by which to achieve Ren. According to the Analects, Ren is cultivated in the process of extensive learning, firm aspirations, earnest curiosity, and profound thinking. Mencius was concerned with discriminability as an important dimension of Zhi: Discriminability is the beginning of Zhi. Xunzi deepened the concept of Zhi from the ability to discern the external world to the ability to discern one’s inner heart–mind. People with Zhi understand themselves, and people with Ren love themselves.

Xin

Xin, conventionally translated as trustworthiness (Low & Ang, 2013), credibility (Liu & Stening, 2016), faithfulness (Yao & Yao, 2000), or commitment (Yeung & Tung, 1996), guarantees the implement of Ren and acts as a baseline for social interaction. The Analects discussed the application of Xin to different occasions, such as Keep Xin with friends; I doubt a person without Xin can achieve anything; Every day, I reflect about the following three issues: Was I loyal to my master, did I keep Xin with friends, and did I review newly learned knowledge? The ancient philosophy book, The Way and Its Power, defined Xin as keeping one’s promise: A person who despises promises must lack Xin. The Great Learning pointed out that Xin is necessary for moral practice: The Great Way for a virtuous person was obtained through loyalty and Xin, yet was lost by arrogance and luxurious.

Notably, among the Five Constants, Ren lays the foundation for the other Confucian moral codes, and these other codes enrich the meaning of Ren (shown in Figure 2). Ren reflects the ultimate moral principle, whereas Yi is the moral judgment based on Ren, Li is the operationalized fork custom of Ren, Zhi is the path to achieve Ren, while Xin is the faith and belief that guarantees Ren. Without Ren, Yi would become a mechanical implementation of rules, Li would become formalism, Zhi would become mere cleverness, and Xin would become credit.

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Figure 2

Confucian Moral Codes

Business Ethics

As an important component of sustainable business performance, business ethics offer a critical framework through which to assess whether a firm’s actions are ethical. Lashley (2016) mapped business ethics and morality of hospitality and tourism firms from the perspectives of corporate citizenship, equity, honesty, and avoidance of harm. Based on a systematic review, Köseoglu et al. (2016) found that the main concerns of business ethics by hospitality and tourism firms include environmental concerns, CSR, business ethics, and morality. Although scholars such as Wijesinghe (2014) perceived hospitality business ethics as a universal objective measure without cultural differences, the present study argues that Confucian hospitality firms possess some unique business ethics.

The business ethics of Confucian hospitality are centered on the dialectic relationship between Yi (righteousness, 義) and Lì (benefit, 利). The debate between righteousness and benefit has lasted for 2000 years and is a crucial topic for human ethics and values. Zhuxi stated that the doctrine of righteousness and benefit is the first and foremost meaning of Confucianism. Confucianism is not against benefit per se, as long as benefit is obtained through righteousness. Rather, Confucianism rejects the unscrupulous pursuit of pure personal benefit at the expense of morality. Confucius said, if I can obtain wealth, I’m willing to be a coachman with a whip in hand. The pursuit of benefit is a legitimate demand insofar as it is constrained by righteousness. If benefit can benefit collectively then, it is a righteousness-conduct that should be performed and promoted (Ding, 2006), as Confucius asked: Isn’t it beneficial and effortless to obtain benefit for people’s benefit?

In Western linguistics, hospitality is defined as service interactions driven by surplus profit (Lashley, 2015). However, under the Confucian framework, hospitality is perceived as humanity-oriented conduct “that is defined by amenities and features that add material comfort, convenience, and smoothness to social interaction” (Chon, 2019, p. 13). Confucian moral codes frame the business vision of Confucian hospitality firms, shape their goals and strategies, and direct prescribed business activities. Confucian hospitality firms consider that the rationale of their business is to obtain benefit through righteousness conduct, such as creating smooth host–guest interactions, and providing genuine care and pleasant service, improving the mental and physical well-being of employees, sustaining mutual benefits with stakeholders, and contributing back to society in times of need.

Confucian hospitality firms exhibit humane vision, righteousness orientation, and disdain of pure benefit. A recent example is the Chinese hospitality industry’s reaction during the spread of the novel coronavirus in 2020. The Chinese hospitality industry suffered extensively due to the crisis. Nevertheless, starting in Wuhan city, and then spreading through Hubei province and nationally, thousands of hotels voluntarily provided free accommodation for doctors, nurses, soldiers, stranded tourists, and quarantined citizens. Travel agents shipped medical supplies to China through their international networks and donated supplies to hospitals. Chinese online travel agents, together with hotels, airlines, and destination management organizations, provided timely refunds for travel expenses. During the national crisis, hospitality firms cooperated to tackle the current difficulties and to sacrifice benefit for the greater good of righteousness.

Leadership

Future trends of the hospitality industry call for leadership that indorses ethical conduct and employee gratitude (Chon & Zoltan, 2019). Different leadership style creates various climates of trust, and thereby lead to diverse employee performance, such as firm commitment, work engagement, and work performance (Ling et al., 2017). The joint effort of Confucian leadership and ideologies has led to rapid economic growth in Asian countries (A. Kim & Park, 2003). Romar (2002) argued that Chinese economic strength was rooted in Confucian paternalism, which focuses on morality, benevolence, and authority to foster Confucian leaders. Confucian moral codes can foster ideal leadership, such as righteousness, virtue, pragmatism, stable personality, sincerity, moderation, and long-term outlook (Tsang, 2011). A virtuous Confucian leader should be capable of maintaining harmonious interpersonal relationships, preserving a humble self-image, and avoiding calculated personal gain or loss (Hsu, 2007). McDonald (2011) portrayed the modern Confucian leader as a hard-working, ambitious yet humble person with an abiding interest in self-cultivation. In the hospitality industry, Gilbert and Tsao (2000) discovered that Confucian hotel managers take care of employees professionally and personally, thereby strategically boosting employees’ work engagement and commitment.

Through ambitious self-cultivation, Confucian leaders are obliged to emulate a virtuous person in establishing superior personal virtues and setting a moral example for their employees (Romar, 2004). Confucian leadership is based on moral codes and performed by virtuous actions. According to Confucian leadership, if a leader demonstrates virtue, employees would self-govern themselves and obey the leader’s instructions. Confucius said, as long as the leader behaves well, people will follow the leader even if their leader does not give orders. If the leader acts improperly, people will not follow the leader even if the leader forces them to. Confucian leaders believe in the power of virtue, and thus, they practice it personally and preach it to employees. The Analects recorded that a virtuous leader is like the North Star. Although the leader is fixed in one place, stars will be attracted to surround the leader.

Confucian hospitality firms exhibit a culture of “hierarchical human employer paternalism relations” that manifests as managerial prerogatives and employer paternalism (Wilkinson, 1996, p. 425). The Confucian leader exists in a kind of relationship with spiritual or paternal connotations and is a self-appointed teacher, mentor, or coach for employees. Confucian hospitality leaders undertake bigger responsibilities and also have greater controlling power. Confucian leaders believe that their responsibilities extend beyond what is written down in company regulations. Like the father in a family, Confucian leaders display generosity and compassion, upwards to the firm, and downwards to employees, as a community of common future. As the Chinese saying goes, Confucian leaders perceive the personal bond with the firm’s future as live together and die together and the connection with employees as glory together and abasement together.

Work Ethics

The Confucianism moral codes have been converted into economic form as work ethics for the contemporary hospitality landscape. Hospitality employees adopt work ethics to guide their interaction with leaders, customers, and coworkers (Tavitiyaman et al., 2019). Shaped by familiar solidarity, Confucian employees work for collective benefits rather than personal welfare, and thus, they are capable and willing to work assiduously and bear hardship. They possess great commitment and loyalty to the firm, display acceptance of hierarchy and managerial paternalism, collaborate with coworkers harmoniously and collectively, and devote themselves to continuous self-improvement through education. Fan (2000) depicted Confucian work ethics as bearing hardship, leader-governed, respect for authority, easy-to-reach consensus or compromise, confrontation avoidance, orientation toward collectivism, disdain of pure profit, sense of social obligation, and satisfaction with status, among others. Similarly, A. Kim and Park (2003, p. 45) described Confucian work ethics as “discipline, hard work, dedication to duty, loyalty, responsibility, and achievement-oriented education.”

Confucianism is “basically humanistic, obligation-based, and collectivistic in nature” (Ip, 2009, p. 464). Family is the building block and sanctified unit of interpersonal relationships in Confucian society. Confucianism interprets every human relationship as an extension of the family and promotes familial collectivism. In the ever-expanding familial social network, the balance between rights and obligations is dexterously maintained by morality. With the family as a metaphor, the culture of harmony, solidarity, and cooperation is prevalent in Confucian hospitality firms. Consequently, an essential Confucian work ethic is cooperative and collective effort between leaders and employees and among coworkers. With the belief that self-achievement occurs only in social interaction, Confucian employees de-emphasize themselves and show disdain for personal profit (Ding, 2006). An individual’s value does not exist without the social network in which the individual is embedded. Confucian employees are motivated to engage in self-sacrifice to contribute to the firm and nation.

In addition, compared with their Western counterparts, Confucian hospitality employees display more acceptance of hierarchy and managerial authority. Confucian society is hierarchically constructed, and the same holds for hospitality firms. The Confucian superior–subordinate social pattern plays an important role in smoothing a firm’s bureaucracy and management, enhancing work productivity, and taking unified actions (A. Kim & Park, 2003). Although managerial paternalism can be suspected as an infringement of human rights in the Western context, scholars have discovered that Confucian hierarchy and authoritarianism promote management efficiency and economic expansion (McDonald, 2011). Familiar collectivism entails individuals subordinating their benefits to the group, and yet subordination is not unconditional and obedience is not unprincipled (Romar, 2004).

Service Provision

Human interrelations in the hospitality industry are not only about economic capital but also have a crucial sociocultural dimension. The hospitality firm’s service provision is a significant predictor of customer satisfaction and the firm’s financial performance (Kao et al., 2016). Hospitality customers from different sociocultural backgrounds attach different importance to various service dimensions. While Westerners emphasize business expertise, Confucian customers appreciate service humanity. For instance, Kuo (2009) found that U.S. customers focus on immediacy and efficiency, Taiwanese customers value friendliness and enthusiasm, whereas Japanese customers admire courteousness and propriety. For Confucian individuals, serving superiors and elders with deference and obedient gestures is not deprivation of self-esteem, but rather virtuous conduct and great glory. Conversely, some communication styles that display pride in Western culture could be perceived as arrogant and provocative in Confucian understanding (Purnell, 2018).

The Confucian hospitality culture is shared by Confucian societies in which guests are treated with natural warmth, kindness, and deference, which is the foundational mentality for a hospitality firm to succeed (Chon, 2019). The Confucian concept of commonness also lays the foundation for nondiscriminatory hospitality practice across races and cultures (Lam, 2003). Confucius advised his followers to welcome guests with genuine pleasure: Isn’t it a delight when friends visit from afar? Hsu (2007) considered that Confucian virtues, such as mutual kindness and respect, could be adopted to delight customers in the business context. Tsang (2011) revealed Confucian moral codes, such as tolerance, harmony, courtesy, humbleness, trustworthiness, and self-cultivation, as a cultural asset for Confucian hospitality firms to guarantee service provision.

Confucian individuals are shaped by Li and have an inherent service mentality. In the Confucian cultural area, guests are served in an almost ceremonial manner. For Confucian hospitality firms, customer retention is naturally embedded in Confucian personality and cultural genes, which does not necessarily need to be instructed or accentuated (Gilbert & Tsao, 2000). The respect and deference for seniors and superiors are naturally reflected in hospitality workers’ attitudes, language, and actions toward customers. For instance, hospitality staff always deliver items to customers and receive items from customers with both hands and a slight bow. Chinese restaurants traditionally utilize a round table, which represents reunion and harmony. Seats around the table are hierarchically distributed according to clan rank in a family gathering or business title. Each dish should be tasted by the most honored guest and then is passed to others according to rank. Confucian Li is accepted as omotenashi in Japan, which refers to the Japanese courtesy of serving guests with respect. This customer-oriented mentality is reflected in Japanese restaurants’ signs “we are preparing (the restaurant for you)” instead of “we are closed” during nonopening hours. Every signal, word, or action that does not follow Li is deemed as offensive and destructive of harmony.

Corporate Social Responsibility

The hospitality firm’s CSR contributes to the company’s reputation and customer satisfaction, predicts customer commitment and behavioral responses (Su et al., 2017), promotes organization citizenship and task performance (He et al., 2019), improves employees’ well-being (H. Kim et al., 2018), and forges sustainable practice (Font & Lynes, 2018). Confucian hospitality firms consider that long-standing harmonious Guanxi brings relationship longevity and augmented profitability. In a Confucian society, people first spend time establishing proper Guanxi, and then address business issues. As long as Guanxi is well maintained, a business transaction can be further deliberated and established. There is always a blurred boundary between a business transaction with practical purposes and personal interaction with sentimental meaning.

The finishing point of one transaction does not indicate the end, but the starting point for enduring cooperation to be continued (Ding, 2006). As the Chinese saying goes, the business has failed but Ren and Yi continue. Confucian individuals believe that a balance between gain and payment of social credit exist in the long run. Every Guanxi is a stock to invest in times of abundance and to withdraw in times of need (Yeung & Tung, 1996). This is reflected in the Chinese saying, the kindness of one drop of water must be repaid by a gushing spring. The Confucian social role implies a familiar understanding of one’s position in dynamic relationships that extend to business encounters. Confucian firms perceive customers as parents who offer us clothes and food and treat stakeholders as siblings who enjoy prosperity together, and bear hardship together. For instance, when the Banyan Tree Hotels and Resorts planned to build new hotels, it held an almost religious belief in environmental protection to stay in harmony with nature. Therefore, the hotel would rather modify its design rather than cut a single tree. In addition, Banyan Tree has strong faith in treating employees with Ren and Yi, and hence, states in its legal labor agreements that employees earn all service charges paid by guests.

Some studies have explored Confucian CSR. Gilbert and Tsao (2000) revealed that Confucian firms are devoted to smoothing business growth, creating pleasant interactions, and building predictable, governable, and long-lasting cooperative relationships with stakeholders under strong Guanxi focused on honor, human sentiment, and virtues. Confucian characteristics, such as emphasizing Guanxi, focus on social bonds rather than immediate gains, and long-range views, are shared by economic entities that contribute to the harmonious cooperation of stakeholders (Fan, 2000). Ding (2006) found that Confucian individuals place great importance on proper human relationships, humble themselves in business encounters, and shun purely personal profits in business transactions. Low and Ang (2013) pointed out that Confucian CSR emphasizes the compelling desire to contribute back to the society, and therefore, CSR is naturally executed by Confucian firms and has become necessary for business success. For instance, leaders establish a familiar bond with employees, by expressing concern for their welfare and future careers, providing genuine care and the highest Li for their customers, creating long-standing harmonious connections with and reciprocal benefits for local communities, showing loyalty to the government and actively serving its needs, and being dedicated to promoting social well-being and environmental protection. It is common practice for Confucian merchants to adhere to CSR, to passionately involve in charity, and to invest in schools, roads, and bridges for their hometown and local community once they accumulate enough capital (Lam, 2003).

Conclusions

The purpose of the current study was to provide an explorative analysis of Confucian impacts on the hospitality industry. Confucianism is an inner belief that deeply interconnects all Confucian populations. This study reviewed the Confucian historical context to present a holistic picture of its evolution and geographic variation. One of the insights to emerge from this study is that the five Confucian constants are deeply embedded in the ideological format, behavioral code, and regulatory discipline of the Confucian hospitality industry. At the intrapersonal level, Confucianism emphasizes self-cultivation, at the interpersonal level, it promotes harmonious liaisons, and at the social level, it accentuates hierarchy and collectivism. In today’s business world characterized by instrumental and utilitarian rationalities, Confucianism prompts innovative ethical thoughts and conduct that can resolve the ethical deficit and nurture economic expansion in a longer horizon.

This study proposed the Confucian hospitality business model. Confucian hospitality business ethics are characterized by vision for humanity, orientation toward righteousness, and disdain of pure benefit. Confucian leaders are shaped to act morally through assiduous self-cultivation. Ideal Confucian leaders should be ambitious yet humble and principled yet diplomatic by managing employees through virtue rather than discipline. Confucian hospitality firms are hierarchically constructed. On one hand, Confucian leadership manifests as managerial prerogatives and employer paternalism, while on the other hand, Confucian employees demonstrate acceptance of hierarchy and deference to authority. This endows Confucian hospitality firms with familiar solidarity and collective efficiency. Confucian hospitality employees are culturally indoctrinated with a hospitality mentality. Compared with their Western counterparts, Confucian hospitality employees are generally committed and loyal to the firm, are obedient and deferent to leaders, cooperate and interact harmoniously with coworkers, and display courtesy and respect to customers. Confucian customers have more expectations regarding propriety, which manifest as service attitude, communication style, etiquette and ritual, moral order, and social norm. In addition, Confucian hospitality firms strive to maintain long-standing, reciprocal, and cooperative Guanxi with stakeholders and to serve their major stakeholders—guests, employees, communities, and authorities—with humanity, righteousness, and propriety.

Theoretical Implications

This study aids understanding of the sociocultural framework through which the Confucian hospitality service is created, delivered, and interpreted. The findings of this study have significant implications for understanding how Confucian hospitality is culturally constructed. The Confucian core moral codes, the Five Constants, are explained in both Confucian cultural context and the hospitality setting. The Five Constants combine an enterprise system and cooperate culture into a hierarchical structure with familiar collectivism and parental authority. The Five Constants facilitate the sociocultural investigation of Confucian firms and individuals in various hospitality and tourism settings. Each of the five aspects of the model can be further developed into a series of empirical studies in future research.

Managerial Implications

For a Confucian hospitality firm to succeed, it should set Confucian morality as a cornerstone of its growth with an emphasis on the Five Constants; promote a familiar collectivism atmosphere to build morale, perform financially, enhance effectiveness, and boost compatibility; create a common good for major stakeholders and contribute to society; and cultivate virtuous leaders to set a moral example for employees to follow; foster parental and sentimental leader—employee bonds to augment talent retention and reduce staff turnover. Moreover, a successful Confucian hospitality business should use propriety to rationalize the service spirit to forge a genuine customer-oriented hospitality mind-set; engage both customers and employees as they would family members; boost Confucian customers’ esteem through service procedure; adapt to both the Confucian sociocultural milieu and the global environment; accommodate diverse values, demands, and communication styles of customers from different parts of the world; and reinforce harmonious relationship with customers, employees, local communities, government, and even competitors.

In addition, with globally expanding Chinese hospitality firms and ever-increasing numbers of Chinese tourists (it is temporarily hindered by the COVID-19 pandemic), a better understanding of Confucianism would be crucial for not only Confucian hospitality firms but also international tourism corporations that target the Confucian market. Consequently, Confucian moral codes, social norms, and hospitality implementation should be systematically developed into a training program for addition to the hospitality educational curriculum. Doing so would be beneficial for firms located within Confucian areas, those that serve Confucian customers, those that hire Confucian employees, and those that establish Confucian partnerships.

Limitations and Future Research

The main limitation of this study is the lack of empirical verification of the research proposition. Empirical studies using mixed methods would add to the growing body of knowledge of the Confucian impacts on hospitality practice. Moreover, this study attempted to present a general image of Confucian influences on the hospitality industry, which has thrown up many questions in need of further investigation. Future research directions on Confucianism in the hospitality industry include the following areas: (a) Confucian hospitality business ethics; (b) Confucian hospitality leadership and Confucian human resource management; (c) Confucian hospitality work ethics; (d) understanding the value, culture, aesthetics, and expectations of Confucian customers; (e) Confucian CSR in the hospitality industry; and (f) a sociocultural explanation of Chinese hospitality amid the COVID-19 pandemic. Moreover, we should acknowledge that there are some core values in common between Confucianism and Western ideology (Lam, 2003). Moral codes, such as humanity, righteousness, and faithfulness, widely exist across regions and cultures, and greatly influence the hospitality industry, albeit in different dimensions and forms. Therefore, an essential next step is to examine the uniqueness of Confucianism through cross-cultural comparison of hospitality practice, as well as to understand Confucian hospitality among participants with different social backgrounds and cultures.

It is necessary to acknowledge that Confucianism is a male-dominated philosophy that ignores the presence of women in the Confucian linguistic corpus and narrative. In addition, although it is beyond the scope of this study, Confucian hierarchy, authoritarianism, and paternalism have been criticized for repressing human nature and subjective initiative, and hence, for not being compatible with Western individualism. Moreover, the understanding and translation of ancient Confucian classics is subjective, and thus, continues to be mired in controversy. Therefore, there is room to reinterpret aspects of Confucianism.