Marketing a Destination Brand Image to Muslim Tourists: Does Accessibility to Cultural Needs Matter In Developing Brand Loyalty?

Abstract

Worldwide, Muslim travelers are expected to be worth more than US$450 billion by 2026. Ignoring Muslim tourists would be a missed opportunity for any country’s economy that depends on tourism. This study aims to help non-Muslim tourism providers to understand what Muslim travelers require. Specifically, the study posits that accessibility to cultural needs and brand image affects customer satisfaction, which in turn influences brand loyalty among Muslim tourists. Religiosity plays a role as a moderating variable. Quantitative data was collected from 291 Muslim tourists visiting New Zealand that is predominantly a Christian country through online and mall intercept surveys. The study has adopted Hayes’s PROCESS Model 8 to test the mediated–moderated model. The results indicate strong support for the research model. Finally, the study provides some theoretical discussions and strategic managerial implications on how to offer Muslim tourists the best possible experience.

Keywords

destination brand image Muslim tourists halal tourism customer satisfaction brand loyalty

Introduction

Building a successful destination brand image associated with leisure tourism poses many challenges. In building it, the host has to undergo a process that includes the creation, the positioning strategy, and the implementation of that particular brand (Morgan et al., 2002). Over the years, the literature has identified the attributes for a brand image that are associated with leisure tourism. These include physical environment (Morgan et al., 2002), activities (Hankinson, 2005), tourist facilities and infrastructure (Embacher & Buttler, 1989), cultural appeal and cuisine (Lin et al., 2011), and convenience and comfort (Im et al., 2012), to name a few. The essence of creating a successful brand destination, however, relies in the building of an emotional link between the product or service and the target market (Tapachai & Waryszak, 2000). On another spectrum, there appears to be a growing demand for halal tourism or halal-friendly tourism among Muslim tourists. This market is predicted to boom in coming years, as the number of international Muslim visitors is expected to grow from an estimated US$140 million in the year 2018 to a projected US$230 million by the end of 2026, spending US$180 billion for online travel purchases and US$300 billion in travel expenditures. It is estimated that the Muslim population between 2016 and 2060 is set to grow twice as fast as the overall world population. The number of Muslims will increase from 1.8 billion in 2015 to 3 billion in 2060, which is an increase of 70%. With this growth, there will be a need for tourism products and services that will be Shariah-compliant (Battour & Ismail, 2016).

This raises the question of whether a non-Muslim host country like New Zealand can afford to neglect this lucrative market. Given that the essence of building a successful brand relies on establishing an emotional link between the product and consumers (Tapachai & Waryszak, 2000), this study believes it is essential that a host country understand the cultural needs of the target market and match these needs with the host’s tourism products and services. Using only one chopstick as an analogy, it is a meaningless and functionless stick unless it is joined with another (Fam et al., 2009). Therefore, in building a successful brand image that translates into customer satisfaction and brand loyalty, especially when the guests’ cultural values are dissimilar to those of the host, it is essential that the tourism providers not only are offering the products and services that enhance the brand image but also offering the accessibility to tourists’ own cultural needs. Indeed, in addition to service quality, customer satisfaction is influenced by many other factors such as sociopsychological states, extraneous events, and program or site attributes (Baker & Crompton, 2000).

This study aims to examine the relationship between host destination image and impact of accessibility to tourists’ own cultural needs (in this case, Muslim tourists) on customer satisfaction and brand loyalty. More specifically, the study addresses the following four research questions:

Research Question 1: To what extent does a brand image affect customer satisfaction and brand loyalty among Muslim tourists?

Research Question 2: To what extent does a tourist’s accessibility to their own cultural needs affect customer satisfaction and brand loyalty?

Research Question 3: Does religiosity moderate the relationship between accessibility to cultural needs and customer satisfaction?

Research Question 4: Does religiosity moderate the relationship between accessibility to cultural needs and brand loyalty?

In addressing these questions, this study has chosen to investigate Muslim tourists visiting New Zealand, which is a predominantly Christian country. This study contributes to the literature in three ways. First, it enhances our understanding of the relationship between brand image and customer satisfaction and brand loyalty. Second, self-congruity theory (Sirgy, 1985) argues that brand attitude is the function of the image and functional congruities that consumers perceive about a particular brand; hence, it would be interesting to examine whether accessibility to cultural needs (in this case, Islamic cultural values) play a role in strengthening the brand loyalty to a particular destination. Studies that center around Muslim travelers and their needs (such as halal tourism) have gained attention among scholars recently (please see Battour et al., 2010, 2014, 2018; Bogan & Sarusik, 2019; Carboni & Janati, 2016; El-Gohary, 2016; Rasul, 2019). However, these studies mainly focused on halal tourism in Muslim-majority countries such as Malaysia, Turkey, Indonesia, Kuwait, and Iran. There is a gap in the literature on halal tourism in nonmajority Muslim countries such as New Zealand; hence, this study offers to provide insights into this area. Finally, this study attempts to guide tourism providers in developing corporate strategy in meeting different cultural needs of tourists.

Literature Review

Destination Brand Image

Synthesizing from Dobni and Zinjkan’s (1990) and Padgett and Allen’s (1997) studies, Manhas et al. (2016) define destination brand image as “the consumer’s mental representation of the offering where symbolic meanings are associated with the specific features of a product or destination” (p. 28). This definition is aligned with Im et al. (2012), who conceptualized destination brand image as the “perceptions about a brand as reflected by the cluster of associations that consumer connects to the brand name in memory” (p. 391). Zhang et al. (2014) argued that a destination brand image holds cognitive, affective, and conative components. Cognitive component is about the destination attributes, while affective is the emotional response, and conative is the behavioral response to the attributes. This is echoed by Papadimitriou et al. (2018) who claimed that overall destination image is contributed by cognitive and affective image. Other studies claim that brand association model forms the basis of a destination brand image (Hankinson, 2005). The model is associated with functional attributes, symbolic associations, experiential associations, and brand attitudes such as overall brand evaluation. These arguments hold that a destination brand image is often associated with the attributes of the destination itself (Hankinson, 2005; Keller, 1993; Zhang et al., 2014).

Over the decades, the literature on destination brand image has documented several attributes. These attributes include safety, economic benefits, facilities and attraction, environment and nature, hospitality and amusement, and convenient and comfort among others (Hankinson, 2005; Im et al., 2012; Pike, 2016). Table 1 summarizes studies on destination brand image attributes. As for New Zealand, in July 1999, Tourism New Zealand branded New Zealand as the 100% Pure New Zealand. The 100% pure tagline is the country’s first-ever branding initiative. In addition to the general consensus of a destination brand image such as economic and political stability, safety, and good infrastructure, the 100% Pure New Zealand brand image is associated with its nature and landscape, adventure tourism (hiking and camping), New Zealand indigenous Maori culture, and its outdoor sporting activities such as canoeing and kayaking (Morgan et al., 2002). In recent years, New Zealand has also become well-known for its agricultural tourism, and its movie sets such as the Lord of the Rings and the Hobbit movies (New Zealand Tourism, 2018).

Table 1

Brand Image Attributes

Authors	Attributes
Pike (2016)	High levels of personal safety, high level of cleanliness, friendly locals, quality infrastructure, beautiful scenery, interesting local culture, historic sights, high quality accommodation, shopping, nightlife, opportunities for romance and opportunities for adventures.
Ashton (2014) New Zealand brand Image	Three components; (1) Overall impression for product attributes (attribute-holistic) such as local environment, flora and fauna; (2) Functional—psychological attribute, such as tourism sustainability, cultural heritage, and health tourism; (3) Unique products such as local Maori in New Zealand, typical local cuisine and authentic events/festivals.
Im et al. (2012)	Facilities and attraction (infrastructure, shopping places, sightseeing, interesting cultural events), cultural needs (familiarity with visitor’s cultural needs), environmental and natural resources (safe and secure environment, natural attraction and scenery), hospitality and amusement (friendly locals, availability of outdoor recreation, a wide entertainment and nightlife), convenience and comfort (less communication barrier, accepted accommodation cost, weather and climate), and sports and food
Oberecker et al. (2008)	Lifestyle (food and language), culture (history, values and tradition), scenery (location, landscape and climate), politics and economics, and micro drivers (accessibility to personal contacts with friends and family while abroad)
Hankinson (2005)	Physical environment, economic activity, business tourism facilities, accessibility, social facilities, strength of reputation, and people characteristics
Morgan et al. (2002) New Zealand brand Image	New Zealand 100% pure. Physical and natural environment, landscapes, people, culture and tourist attraction, arts, entertainment, events and festivals, and tourism activities.
Walmsley and Jenkins (1993)	Economic (commercialized vs not commercializes, expensive vs. inexpensive), physical environment (attractiveness, busy vs. relaxed, interesting, natural state, comfort and security), activities and facilities (adventures), and brand attitude (lacked of language barrier and cultural distance)
Embacher and Buttler (1989)	Physical environment (weather and climate, resort atmosphere), activities and facilities (food, suitability activities for children, tourist facilities and infrastructure and accessibility), and brand attitude (overall appeal, people and culture)

The Importance of Muslim Cultural Needs

The literature over the years has documented that Muslims are the most conservative religious group (Bhasi et al., 2017; Wisker, Muniapan, et al., 2019). Therefore, it is not surprising that Muslims prioritize halal when making decisions about tourism-related products and services, choosing options that allow them to abide by Islamic values (Bogan & Sarusik 2019). The demand for halal products and services is growing due to social and economic changes in most of the Muslim-dominant countries (Battour & Ismail, 2016). The definition of halal in the Arabic word halal is permitted or permissible, which is built around the Islamic teaching of Shariah law. In short, halal is a term that covers all matters that are not prohibited and are in compliance with Islamic rules (Bogan & Sarusik, 2019). The halal practices are not only restricted to food but also to other daily activities performed by Muslims (Battour et al., 2019). The holy Quran and the Sunnah (the teachings of Prophet Mohammad) is where the Islamic Shariah law originated, which is interpreted as a guidance or a framework for Muslims to follow during the course of their lives (El-Gohary, 2016). This demand for halal products has also spread to the tourism industry worldwide, which is termed as halal tourism (Battour et al., 2010; Battour & Ismail, 2016).

Interestingly, the definition of halal tourism as documented in the literature varies. Razzaq et al. (2016) define halal tourism “as tourism and hospitality that is co-created by consumer and producer in accordance with the teachings of Islam” (p. 93). Other scholars such as Battour and Ismail (2016) define halal tourism as “any tourism object or action which is permissible according to Islamic teachings to use or engage by Muslims in tourism industry.” It is a completely new concept marketed by tourism that offers services in accordance with the Islamic laws, including halal food, halal accommodation, and halal leisure facilities that ban gambling and sexual permissiveness. To the extreme, Razzaq et al. (2016) suggested that halal accommodation attributes include banning of alcohol consumption and gambling onsite, removal of pornographic material and any sexual suggestive programming options, prayer mats in rooms and indications of where Qibla is, the removal of Bibles from all rooms, and the segregation of swimming pools between male and female. The challenge for the non-Muslim host destination country is therefore finding a balance between catering to Muslim tourists while avoiding conflict with the culture’s own values. Bogan and Sarusik (2019) synthesized the various definitions of halal tourism and concluded that the Islamic market is not homogenous, as different Muslims understand and adapt their lives to Islam quite differently. Nonetheless, the consistent themes among Muslim tourists were dietary requirements such as the availability of halal food, accessibility to a place for worship, and accommodations that are Muslim- or family-friendly (Battour & Ismail, 2016; Im et al., 2012).

Religiosity

Religiosity has often been associated with religious cognition in terms of knowledge, beliefs, values, and emotional attachments such as affiliation with a particular house of God, reading (scripture), and praying (Cornwall et al., 1986; Roccas, 2005) that result in a set of behavior and meanings often ascribed to religious people (Ferm, 1963). Religion is one of the imperative cultural values that influences the lifestyles of its believers (Mukhtar & Butt, 2011; Wisker, Rosinaite, et al., 2019). Some argue that religion acts as a catalyst for human behavior and attitudes (Essoo & Dibb, 2004: Ferm, 1963). Therefore, it is not surprising that the relationship between religious values and individual behavior is well-documented in the literature in various aspects such as shopping behavior (Essoo & Dibb, 2004; Mokhlis & Spartks, 2007), attitude toward advertising and controversial products (Fam et al., 2004), political views (Asadzade, 2019), environmental and sustainable practice (Wisker, Rosinaite, et al., 2019), entrepreneurship behavior (Gursoy et al., 2017), moral reasoning (Baumsteiger et al., 2013), choosing a social group (McCullough & Willoughby, 2009), and work ethics (Wisker & Rosinaite, 2016).

Previous studies have observed how Islamic values have affected Muslims’ attitude and behavior. For example, Eid and El-Gohary (2015) observed how Islamic religiosity moderated the relationship between perceived Muslim values and Muslim customer satisfaction. Their findings reinforce the importance of Islamic religiosity in understanding the behavior of Muslims in choosing tourism products. Similarly, Putit et al. (2016) in studying the behavior of Muslim travelers in Malaysia found that Islamic religiosity influenced the demand for halal accommodation. Given these findings, this study asserts that religiosity plays a role in influencing Muslim tourists in demanding accessibility to Islamic cultural needs.

Customer Satisfaction

The tourism and hospitality literature has acknowledged that customer satisfaction is crucial in forming repeat purchase, trust, revisit intention, and brand loyalty (Chi, 2012; Kim et al., 2015; L. Su et al., 2017; Wu et al., 2018). Customer satisfaction can be defined as “an overall evaluation based on the total purchase and consumption experience with a good or service over time” (Garbarino & Johnson, 1999, p. 390). The expectation–disconfirmation theory (Oliver, 1980) proposes that customer satisfaction results from comparing the expectations and perceived performance with the actual experience. Customers are satisfied when they have positive experiences with previous purchases, which could enhance their positive intention to repurchase and become loyal to the brand (L. Su et al., 2017; Wisker, 2020). Previous studies in tourism and hospitality have also demonstrated a relationship between customer satisfaction and revisit intention, perceived quality, perceived value, word-of-mouth, customer loyalty, and brand loyalty (Kim et al., 2015; L. Su et al., 2017; Wu & Li, 2017). However, it is noted that customer satisfaction varies among individuals because it is often influenced by other determinants such as first-time versus repeat visitors, intention to reuse, age group, and cultural background (Chi, 2012; Hopkins et al., 2009).

Brand Loyalty

Brand loyalty can be defined as “a deeply held commitment to rebuy or repatronise a preferred product/service consistently in the future, thereby causing repetitively same-brand or same-brand-set purchasing despite situational influences and marketing efforts having the potential to cause switching behaviour” (Oliver, 1999, p. 34). It is noted that this definition focuses on two aspects of loyalty: behavioral and attitudinal (Aaker, 1999; Chaudhuri & Holbrook, 2001; Oliver, 1999). Behavioral loyalty emphasizes repeat purchases, whereas attitudinal loyalty includes a degree of a dispositional commitment (Chaudhuri & Holbrook, 2001). According to Chaudhuri and Holbrook (2001) dispositional commitment is about trusting a particular service, developing emotional ties and feeling attached to the employees, and willingness not only to revisit but also to pay for a premium price. Ultimately, behavioral and attitudinal loyalty generate more future sales. In terms of destination brand loyalty, the measures are mainly indicators such as intention to revisit, likelihood to recommend and spreading positive word-of-mouth (Im et al., 2012; L. Su et al., 2017; Yang, 2017). In this study, we have used attitudinal element as the domain for brand loyalty.

Hypothesis Development

Brand Image, Customer Satisfaction, and Brand Loyalty

In linking the concept of brand image to customer satisfaction and brand loyalty, this study has borrowed classical branding theory (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001) and self-congruity theory (Sirgy, 1985) as the basis for its theoretical foundation. The classical branding model theorizes that a brand is seen as a complex entity that includes a number of smaller components such as name, symbol, and logo, which aid identification and awareness (Aaker, 1999), image and identities that communicate the brand meaning through a set of associations (de Chernatony & Segal-Horn, 2001) and a brand association held in consumer memory that forms the basis of a brand image or identity (Keller, 1993).

In the tourism literature, destination brand image has been identified as a key component of brand loyalty (Im et al., 2012; L. Su et al., 2017; Zhang et al., 2014). Others have also argued that although destination brand image is not the only component in the success of a particular destination, it is certainly central to the formation of brand loyalty (Konecnik & Gartner, 2007). Zhang et al. (2014), examined the impact of brand image on tourist loyalty through a meta-analysis, synthesizing 66 independent studies published in various tourism-related journals and finding that destination brand image measured through cognitive, affective, and conative image affects brand loyalty measured through attitudinal loyalty, composite loyalty, and behavioral loyalty. Interestingly, they also found that this relationship is not always direct, concluding that “no consensus has been reached regarding the magnitude and direction of the relationships” (Zhang et al., 2014, p. 214).

Therefore, the following hypotheses are posited:

Hypothesis 1o: There is no relationship between tourism brand image and brand loyalty and it is not mediated by customer satisfaction.

Hypothesis 1a: Tourism brand image is positively related to brand loyalty, and this relationship is fully mediated by customer satisfaction.

In testing the mediation effect, both direct and indirect effects should be tested (Hayes, 2018); therefore:

Hypothesis 1a_o: There is no relationship between tourism brand image and brand loyalty.

Hypothesis 1a_a: Tourism brand image is positively related to brand loyalty.

Hypothesis 1b_o: There is no relationship between brand image and brand loyalty and it is not mediated through customer satisfaction.

Hypothesis 1b_a: The effect of brand image on brand loyalty is mediated through customer satisfaction.

Hypothesis 1c₀: There is no relationship between customer satisfaction and brand loyalty.

Hypothesis 1c_a: Customer satisfaction is positively related to brand loyalty.

Accessibility to Cultural Needs, Customer Satisfaction, and Brand Loyalty

The self-congruity theory holds that brand attitude is the function of the image and functional congruities that consumers perceive regarding a brand (Sirgy, 1985). Congruity is an imperative element that establishes the relationship between brand image, self-concept, and purchase behavior (Josiassen & Assaf, 2013; N. Su et al., 2019). The direct implication of this theory concerns the quality of agreement and appropriateness between the destination brand image and the visitor’s self-concept (Usakli & Baloglu, 2011). Translating this concept to Muslim travelers, it is really about matching the destination products and services that portray its brand image and providing accessibility to the Muslims’ cultural needs. Since Muslims are quite conservative (Wisker, Muniapan, et al., 2019), and religion plays an integral part in their daily rituals (Mukhtar & Butt, 2011), it is fair to argue that Muslim travelers would want to access their cultural needs when they travel.

Several studies on tourism have also suggested that today’s travel is about experience, fulfilment, and rejuvenation, rather than about places and tangible cues (King, 2002; Pereira et al., 2012). These studies emphasize that tourism providers should focus on providing experiences to customers in terms of what is perceived as being important to them and is aligned with their lifestyles (Pereira et al., 2012). Allowing accessibility to customers’ own cultural needs is about providing them with the lifestyle that they require. Theoretically speaking, using these two models to illustrate our argument, this study argues that customer satisfaction and brand loyalty are functions of a brand image and tourists’ accessibility to their own cultural needs. The literature on tourism has observed how perceived tourism quality and positive travel experience enhance customer satisfaction (Martin et al., 2019). Similarly, several studies have empirically tested the relationship between Islamic tourism motivation attributes and customer satisfaction and found a positive relationship (Eid & El-Gohary, 2015; Rahman, 2014; Wardi et al, 2018). For example, Rahman (2014) conducted a study in Malaysia and found that the Islamic tourist-friendly products that were offered to Muslim tourists boosted their satisfaction, which in turn affected brand loyalty. Likewise, Wardi et al. (2018) observed how Muslim tourists’ satisfaction in Indonesia was influenced by the Islamic facilities and halalness of the tourism products. Summarizing the discussion thus far, this study posits the following:

Hypothesis 2_o: There is no relationship between accessibility to cultural needs and brand loyalty and it is not mediated through customer satisfaction.

Hypothesis 2_a: Accessibility to cultural needs is positively related to brand loyalty, and this relationship is fully mediated through customer satisfaction.

Therefore, the study offers the following subhypotheses (Hayes, 2018):

Hypothesis 2a_o: There is no relationship between accessibility to cultural needs and brand loyalty.

Hypothesis 2a_a: Accessibility to cultural needs is positively related to brand loyalty.

Hypothesis 2b_o: The is no relationship between accessibility to cultural needs on brand loyalty and it is not mediated through customer satisfaction.

Hypothesis 2b_a: The effect of accessibility to cultural needs on brand loyalty is mediated through customer satisfaction.

Moderating Variable: Religiosity

Several scholars in halal tourism have agreed that the market that comprises Muslim tourists should not be treated as a single homogenous entity due to differences in the interpretation of Islam and differences in their lifestyles (Battour et al., 2018; Bogan & Sarusik, 2018). Although all Muslims are bound to Islamic principles and laws, in practice the commitment to Islamic values and ethics varies according to circumstances, personal differences, political realities, and governmental interferences (Tayeb, 1997; Wisker & Rosinaite, 2016). For example, Muslims in Saudi Arabia and Iran adhere strictly to Shariah law, while Turkey and Malaysia have turned to secular laws for administration of its economic affairs (Tayeb, 1997). This practice has translated into the lifestyles of their people. Muslims in the Middle East tend to follow rules for veiling quite seriously as opposed to Muslims in the West and Turkey (Battour et al., 2018). In terms of gender segregation at beaches and swimming pools, only a few Muslim countries such as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and Iran observe this rule strictly. Therefore, it is fair to argue that the level of religiosity among Muslim tourists influences the demand for halal products and services in tourism (Figure 1). This leads to the following subhypotheses:

Hypothesis 3a_o: Religiosity does not moderate the relationship between accessibility to cultural needs and customer satisfaction.

Hypothesis 3a_a: Religiosity moderates the relationship between accessibility to cultural needs and customer satisfaction.

Hypothesis 3b_o: Religiosity does not moderate the relationship between accessibility to cultural needs and brand loyalty.

Hypothesis 3b_a: Religiosity moderates the relationship between accessibility to cultural needs and brand loyalty.

Figure 1

Theoretical Framework

Methodology

Design and Participants

Data were collected from Muslim tourists visiting New Zealand through mall intercept and online surveys. New Zealand is predominantly a non-Muslim country (over 98%). The 2017 New Zealand statistics reported the makeup of religions as Christian (45.6%), no religion (38.5%), Hindu (2.1%), Buddhist (1.4%), Islamic (1.1%), and others (12.3%). Six research assistants were recruited to help conduct the survey. The survey was fielded in several tourist attraction places such as museums, rose gardens, cultural events, mosques, malls, and airports. Additionally, the survey questionnaires were left at popular accommodations, tourist information centers, and halal restaurants throughout the country. The study took 10 weeks to operationalize the survey. There were two eligibility criteria: if the participant was a Muslim and was a tourist (nonresident). The questionnaire took an average of 5 minutes to complete. The online survey was distributed through social media and emails using a SurveyMonkey platform. Ultimately, 311 responses were received. After a close examination, only 291 responses were deemed usable and were retained. Twenty responses were eliminated from the analysis due to several reasons: missing or invalid response, not a Muslim participant, and age below 16 years old. The age restriction was used to comply with the ethical concerns for vulnerable audiences. The time-trend series procedure (Armstrong & Overton, 1977) was adopted to ascertain any differences between early and late respondents. This study found no differences between early and late data, concluding that time gap bias does not appear to be an issue in the study.

Measures

This study used established measures to gather data pertaining to brand image, accessibility to Muslim culture, customer satisfaction, and brand loyalty. Brand image, brand loyalty, and accessibility to Muslim culture were measured using Im et al.’s (2012) scale. The scale has six items for tourism facilities, three items for environmental and cultural resources, four items each for hospitality and convenience, and five items for accessibility to Muslim culture. Brand loyalty was measured by five items. Religiosity scale was adapted from Wisker and Rosinaite’s (2016) study. The scale has five items in total. These scales were measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree. Finally, this study adapted Brown et al. (1996) and González et al. (2007) scale to measure overall customer satisfaction. The scale has three items and was also measured on a 5-point Likert-type scale. The scale reliabilities, factor loadings, and average squared factor loadings (AVE) are shown in Table 2.

Table 2

Scale Reliabilities and Loadings (N = 291).

Variable	Loadings	α	AVE
Brand image
Tourism facilities and attraction		.73	.41
Advanced technology and economy	.75
High-quality infrastructure (transport, roads, airports, technology, etc.)	.67
Good shopping facilities	.33^a
Interesting cultural events/festivals	.58
Availability to visit featured destination of movies or TV dramas	.69
Interesting sightseeing opportunities	.63
Environmental, natural, and cultural resources
Safe and secure environment	.68
Beautiful natural scenery	.62
Interesting cultural/historical attractions	.67
Hospitality and amusement
Friendly local people	.60
Availability of outdoor recreation activities (e.g., camping, canoeing/fishing)	.65
A wide variety of entertainment and nightlife	.38^a
A wide choice of accommodation	.51
Convenience and comfort
Less communication (language) barrier	.68
Acceptable cost of accommodations	.63
Standard hygiene and cleanliness	.51
Good weather and climate	.69
Access to Muslim culture		.84	.42
Accessibility to Muslim prayer service and space	.62
Familiar Islamic culture and religion	.60
Convenient locations of mosques	.71
A wide choice of halal restaurant	.69
A wide choice of halal food	.63
Religiosity		.84	.57
Use lessons from the Quran and Hadith in daily life	.71
Pray five compulsory prayers everyday	.86
Contribute to zakat	.82
Fast in Ramadhan	.60
Started saving money for hajj since early days	.28^a
Overall customer satisfaction		.78	.59
Overall, I am satisfied with this travel experience	.76
Compared with my expectations, I am satisfied with my visit to New Zealand	.82
Compared with the ideal situation, I am satisfied with my visit to New Zealand	.72
Brand loyalty
New Zealand will be my first choice if have opportunity to travel overseas	.78	.81	.57
Intend to travel to New Zealand again in the next 5 years	.81
Would recommend New Zealand to someone seek my advice	.70
Would still consider a trip to New Zealand even if travel cost increased	.72
I am loyal to New Zealand	.75

Item three “shopping facilities” under Tourism and Facilities and item three “entertainment and nightlife” under Hospitality and Amusement, and item five “started saving for haj” under Religiosity were dropped due to low factor loadings.

Control Variables

The subsequent tests included two control variables (covariates): gender and age. We created dummy variables corresponding to the specific levels of respective variables. This is because past studies have shown that gender and age groups differ in the personality, opinion and expression of emotion (McDuff et al., 2017; Salerno et al., 2018). Therefore, it is imperative to control these variables so that they will not interfere with the results.

Results

We have adopted Hayes’s (2018), PROCESS Model 8 using SPSS to test the mediated-moderated effects. The tests were based on 95% bootstrapping confidence interval on 5,000 samples. Table 3 shows the results for mediation effects. Both mediation models for Hypothesis 1b and Hypothesis 1a indicate significant partial indirect effects. From the classical perspective, the Sobel tests also support Hypothesis 1a (Z = 10.4338, p < .00) and Hypothesis 2a (Z = 12.0694, p < .00). Surprisingly, the results show no significant moderation effects on both relationships between accessibility to cultural needs and customer satisfaction (β = .1997, 95% bootstrapping confidence interval, [−.0321, .4314], t = 1. 6961, p < .0909), and between accessibility to cultural needs and brand loyalty (β = −.0487, 95% bootstrapping confidence interval, [−.1701, .0727], t = −. 7894, p < .4305), resulting in rejecting Hypothesis 3a and Hypothesis 3b.

Table 3

Mediation Results

Hypothesis	Effects (β)	SE	t	p	LLCI	ULCI	Conclusion
Hypothesis 1a (Direct)	.1194	.0478	2.4966	.0131	.0253	.2136	Partial mediation effect
Hypothesis 1b (Indirect	.5914	.0539	9.8483	.0000	.4759	.6998	Partial mediation effect
Hypothesis 1c	.5853	.0270	21.6946	.0000	.5322	.6384	Significant
Hypothesis 2a (Direct)	.1565	.0381	4.1059	.0001	.0815	.2315	Partial mediation effect
Hypothesis 2b (Indirect)	.4679	.0411	10.079	.0000	.4140	.5883	Partial mediation effect

Note: LLCI = lower limit confidence interval; ULCI = upper limit confidence interval; SE = standard error.

Discussion

Theoretical Contribution

The findings of this study contribute to the Muslim tourism literature in several ways. First, although past studies have attempted to prove the relationship between the need for halal tourism and satisfaction for Muslim tourists, empirical examinations were often conducted in Muslim-majority host countries. The question arises if there are similar needs when Muslim tourists travel to non-Muslim majority countries. The short answer is yes. This study has observed how Muslim tourists’ satisfaction is affected by accessibility to Islamic cultural needs, even in non-Muslim majority host country. This accessibility includes dietary requirements (e.g., halal food) and accommodations deemed suitable for this group to pray as part of their daily rituals. This finding concurs with those of several past studies such as Battour et al. (2014), El-Gohary (2016), Putit et al. (2016), and Rahman (2014), that imply that the availability of Islamic-friendly tourism products and services is a source of satisfaction for Muslim tourists. Muslim cultures are extremely conservative, and these values are apparent in their consumption patterns. This group is religiously oriented, and understanding their needs is essential for developing effective strategies in marketing a destination.

The study has also found that accessibility to cultural needs affects brand loyalty both directly and indirectly through customer satisfaction. This result affirms self-congruity theory (Sirgy, 1985) that argues that brand attitude is the function of the image and functional congruities that consumers perceive about a particular brand; hence, providing accessibility to tourist’s cultural needs (in this case, Islamic cultural values) play a role in strengthening the brand loyalty of a particular destination. Consumers favor a brand that is consistent with their preconceived images of themselves. Our study provides tenable evidence that addressing consumers’ cultures in tourism is necessity. In the case of Muslims, members would have shared similar values, similar consumption-related pattern behaviors, and similar preconceived images of themselves that presumably aligned with Islamic values. Although previous studies have observed that Muslims’ behavior might not be perfectly homogeneous, our study found otherwise. However, the results should be interpreted with caution, as this study only measured Muslims’ basic cultural necessities such as dietary requirements and Islamic-friendly accommodations.

Surprisingly, this study found no significant moderating effect of religiosity on cultural accessibility—customer satisfaction and cultural accessibility—brand loyalty relationships. Regardless of whether the level of religiosity is low or high, the demand for halal food and Islamic-friendly accommodations is similar across the respondents. This warrants further explanation, and the reasons could be twofold. First, in this study, we limit the accessibility to cultural needs to dietary requirements (halal food) and Islamic-friendly accommodations. Arguably, these two variables are the most basic needs of Muslims, hence the homogeneous behavior was evident. Second, it relies on the demographic characteristics of the participants; apart from the countries they come from, the participants are within similar age groups and similar levels of education. More specifically, the standard deviation for religiosity is fairly small (.448), showing that the values in the dataset are close to the mean, indicating fairly homogeneous answers.

This study has also observed how destination brand image affects brand loyalty directly and indirectly through customer satisfaction. This finding supports previous conclusions in the destination branding literature (Boo et al., 2009; Konecnik & Gartner, 2007) and several other empirical studies (Im et al., 2012; Pike et al., 2010) that imply that brand image as perceived by tourists plays an important role in enhancing tourist satisfaction and brand loyalty. Knowledge of brand images for a particular destination held by the tourists would increase the prediction of brand loyalty. On the methodological front, this study supports Im et al. (2012) and Zhang et al.’s (2014) claim that destination image is multidimensional phenomena. Indeed, this study has observed how a destination image is determined by several domains such as tourism facilities and attraction, environmental, natural and cultural resources, hospitality and amusement, and convenience and comfort. It is worth noting the unique characteristics of a destination image and its offerings. Essentially, tourism is offering intangible products; therefore, in selecting a tourism destination, the process is much more complex, and satisfaction and loyalty can rely on experience of consuming the services and the expectation of the brand image (Bigne et al., 2001).

Practical Implication

This study provides some insights for tourism providers in developing their short- and long-term plans to tailor to this group. Any small strategies that provide better competitive advantage in this competitive business environment will go a long way. As indicated by various studies, the number of Muslim travelers is growing enormously and rapidly. It would be a missed opportunity if any destination providers ignore this market. The findings of this study have shown how Muslim travelers appreciate an accessibility to their cultural needs, at least to access halal foods and Islamic-friendly accommodations where they could perform their daily ritual prayers while travelling. This has practical implications for host destination like New Zealand. Individual tourism providers must work collaboratively with the community, nonprofit organizations, local Muslim community and association and competitors in order to respond to these requirements. Halal food, halal restaurants, and Islamic-friendly accommodation should be made available throughout the country and be marketed appropriately using several means of communications such as through Muslim-friendly apps, brochures, YouTube video clips, and the like. There is a need to build organizational tourism capability by investing more in people, their education and training about the cultural needs of the Muslim tourists.

Limitations and Future Research

This study has several limitations that may provide opportunities for future studies. First, the study does not differentiate the Islamic denominations between the sunni and shiah, or among Islamic jurisprudences such as Hanafi, Maliki, Shafii, and Hanbali. Neither did we factor the clusters based on regions and ethnicities. Others might argue the values, lifestyle and social attitudes between these clusters differ. Nonetheless, it is not the aim of this study to compare and contrast the details of each denomination and cluster. This can be the avenue for future research. Second, in accessing the Islamic cultural needs, we only investigated dietary and accommodation requirements. Several studies in halal tourism have suggested that halal tourism should not be limited to halal food and accommodations. For example, Battour et al. (2014) developed a scale that included general Islamic morality such as the banning of alcohol, gambling, prostitution, and segregation of areas and activities between women and men. However, these measures are arguably applicable only to Muslim hosts’ destinations. The challenge for the non-Muslim majority country is to provide a balance without coming into conflict with its own values and those of other non-Muslim tourists. On the methodological front, the brand loyal literature has acknowledged that touristy brand loyalty is a multidimensional construct that can be measured through attitudinal, behavioral, and composite domains (Zhang et al., 2014). This study limits its measurement to attitudinal domains, as suggested in Im et al.’s (2012) methodology. The limitations of this study could provide direction for future studies on destination image and tourist satisfaction and brand loyalty. Future studies could incorporate other mediating variables and several other halal tourism domains. This study could also be replicated in other Western countries. Finally, we call for further scrutiny into the conceptualization of a brand image. Future studies could include several other domains that were not tested in this study.

Conclusion

This study explored the effect of destination brand image and accessibility to cultural needs on customer satisfaction and brand loyalty among the Muslim tourists travelling to non-Muslim majority country. The study posited that customer satisfaction mediated the relationship between destination brand image and brand loyalty, and destination accessibility to cultural needs and brand loyalty. The study further hypothesized that religiosity moderated the relationship between accessibility to cultural needs and brand loyalty, and accessibility to cultural needs and customer satisfaction. Key findings include partial mediations relationship between destination brand image and brand loyalty, and accessibility to cultural needs and brand loyalty. This finding supports previous conclusions in the destination branding literature that indicate brand image plays an important role in enhancing tourist satisfaction and brand loyalty. The study has also seen how religiosity is insignificantly moderated the relationship between the posited variables, implying that for the Muslim travelers, regardless of the level of religiosity, it is adamant for them to access to their cultural needs especially for the dietary requirements, halal food. Finally, the study offers recommendations for industry practitioners to deal with Muslim travelers.

Footnotes

ORCID iD

Zazli Lily Wisker

Zazli Lily Wisker (corresponding author; e-mail: lilyw@pihms.ac.nz) is an assistant professor at the Pacific International Hotel Management School, New Plymouth, New Zealand. Djavlonbek Kadirov (e-mail: djavlon.kadirov@vuw.ac.nz) is an assistant professor at the Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. Jithin Nizar (e-mail: 1198017@pihms.ac.nz) is a postgraduate student at the Pacific International Hotel Management School, New Plymouth, New Zealand.

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