Abstract
Event management research has generally had a focus on the operational aspect of providing events. In this conceptual effort, the elements of an event are examined through the perspective of the attendee. Five key components of the event experience are identified and explored. Together, the five elements are used to build a model that presents the multifaceted nature of the attendee’s experience. The model is used as a basis for the theory of events to explain and predict what a participant needs and expects from an event experience.
Introduction
Events have played an influential role throughout history (Robson, 2011). Dating from the Roman ceremonial gathering, events have been a part of civilization for centuries (Getz, 1997). Over the millennia, events played a role in many religious gatherings dating from early Christianity in the first century (Alikin, 2010). Events continued to be an active part in the lives of every ethnic group throughout the middle ages and into the 18th century. By the beginning of the 19th century, a shift from ritual gatherings to tourism events had occurred (Getz, 2008). Tourism events are defined as events that are developed and marketed as a means to attract tourists to attractions in that specific location, while serving as a “catalyst” for economic growth in that location (Getz, 2012). As was the case in the U.S. lodging industry in the 20th century with the advent of the interstate highway system, the events industry’s expansion in the 19th century was similarly due in part to the rapid growth of transportation throughout the world, especially in the United States and Western Europe (Roberts et al., 2019). As traveling over long distances became easier, events became much larger and inclusive. Individuals no longer needed to live in close proximity to meet and host events. This precipitated in an increase in the variety and scope, with larger events that drew in more individuals than in previous times. Events sustained over time to play a large role in the lives of all individuals (Getz, 1997). By the 1980s, the events industry experienced an increase in business events, due to the growth of exhibitions and tradeshows (Fenich, 2015). Business events continue to drive the growth of the events industry.
Events have been taking place for thousands of years; however, the field of events research is still in its infancy. Research into the events industry has only been a discipline for approximately the past 50 years. Beginning in the 1970s with only a few various studies conducted by a handful of researchers, research into the field of events slowly grew through the 1980s and early 1990s. In the late 1990s, research in the field of events began to see a large expansion. Much of the research has revolved around event tourism, event impact, event venue selection, and event attendee motivations (Draper et al., 2018).
There are many of different types of events. Using the definition presented by Dolasinski et al. (2021), “an event as an occurrence that has a time element, two or more participants, is planned, and is a unique opportunity” (p. 1). Dolasinski et al. further presented a typology of the field of events offering 20 predominant types of events with four overarching categories identified as professional, entertainment, social, and common cause. While all are very different types of events, it is very important to understand the many similarities each of these events have in common.
Events have many commonalities as well as certain norms in the way attendees act. Event attendance continues to increase and become more pervasive in people’s lives. There are two perspectives when examining an event: the planner point of view and the participant point of view. Researchers have been attempting to better understand the influences of attending events, but there is a need for a broader, more theoretical, and conceptual analysis regarding events. All events share a purpose. People come together in a group setting. Attendees follow social norms and behave in a certain manner. There are logistical elements the attendees expect, including a safe and secure environment in which the event will take place. These commonalities serve as the basis for developing and formulating a theory of events.
Literature Review
Shared Purpose
Events create an environment that brings individuals into a group that focuses around a shared purpose. Individuals participating in an event are there for analogous reasons. The concept of a shared purpose can be appreciated in every segment of events whether the event be a social, a business, or any other type of event (Hahm et al., 2016). Theories from social psychology and sociology provide fertile grounds for better understanding why people attend specific events based on shared purpose. Social exchange theory introduced the idea that exchanges between individuals can provide mutual benefit and forms relationships that are framed by the certain rules of the exchange (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). Van Rooy et al. (2016) argued that literature in psychology and sociology “. . . has established that shared norms emerge from interpersonal interactions . . .” (p. 188). Hopkins and Reicher (2016) suggested that in the social identity approach, there is a shift from a “sense of personal identity” to a “sense of social identity” when individuals participate in an event resulting in share group identity and common purpose. Participants act based on this shared identity and purpose. For example, consider attendees who participate in a political rally. Actions are dictated based on the beliefs of that party and of the other attendees (Heaney et al., 2012). Rituals are followed in most types of events and act as a way to further validate the reasons or purpose for the event.
Group Setting
Studies in cultural and social sciences regarding investigation on the impact of atmosphere on emotions, behaviors and actions have demonstrated that settings and atmosphere play a significant role in overall perception and experience (Lofgren, 2014). One commonality that all event attendees experience is being part of a group and coming together in a group setting. Events create an environment for individuals to join together and meet as a group where engagement is facilitated. Shared purpose of events allows for groups to join together in specifically designed settings. These settings can be formal, such as a convention center, where the space was designed and built to host large events. In contrast, settings can be informal, such as a family’s home, where they are temporarily reformatted to accommodate smaller events. While the group size at events can range from a few individuals to mega events with thousands of participants, they are identical in that every event brings individuals together in a specific place and specific time (Getz, 2012). Y. H. Kim and Kaewnuch (2018) described events as “temporary gatherings of people, each with a distinctive purpose, with a definitive beginning and end” (p. 454).
Little research investigating dynamics of group settings and their role in event participation and effectiveness has been conducted (Smiljanic & Dankulov, 2017). Borrowing from research in the study of tourism experiences, there is significant evidence that the design of an experience plays a key role in the success of the outcome (Su et al., 2016). Consider Pine and Gilmore’s (1998) contention that design principles and staging the experience significantly enhance the experience of its participants. According to Pine and Gilmore (1998), participant experiences (active or passive participation and absorption/immersion) are influenced by the environment. They further suggested that there are four realms of an experience that demonstrate this passive or active participation and the absorption/immersion of participants. These realms of educational, entertainment, esthetic, and escapist experiences are influenced by the environment. The environment is created using five experience-design principles of (1) theme the experience, (2) harmonize impressions with positive cues, (3) eliminate negative cues, (4) mix in memorabilia, and (5) engage the five senses (Pine & Gilmore, 1998).
Environmental psychology has a growing body of literature researching the relationship between people and their environment. As early as 1981, Booms and Bitner developed a servicescape model to explain the behavior of people as it relates to the service environment and initially applied it to the retail industry and then the hospitality industry. Referencing the basic tenants of servicescape and bringing elements regarding themes of service and experience, Tattersall and Cooper (2014) offered the notion of an eventscape and defined it as “a combination of the tangible elements which shape the event environment and therefore influence the emotional responses and experiences of attendees, event staff, and other involved stakeholders” (p. 142).
Event attendees have many different reasons that drive their participation in an event. According to Mair et al. (2016), hotel rooms, transportation, and opportunities to engage in networking are some of the main reasons to attend an event. Budget and cost to attend an event are other key indicators of attendee participation (Kitchen, 2017; Mair et al., 2016; Weber & Adele, 2004). The uniqueness of the event location and the other additional location attractions also play a key role in the decision-making process to attend the event (Mair et al., 2016). For others, the subject matter of the event is the most important element in the decision to attend an event (Martin et al., 2017). These elements demonstrate the depth of different attendee motivations (Duran & Hamarat, 2014; Rittichainuwat & Mair, 2011). This requires broad thinking and planning on the part of planners when designing an event.
Groups meet at events for many different reasons; however, all events are either private events or open invitation events (public). Many events are open only to members of the organization hosting the event. This restriction of qualified attendees is what makes the event private. Associations host some of the largest private member only events in the events industry (Fjelstul et al., 2009; Jung & Tanford, 2017). Members of the association come together to get updates in their industry, hold educational sessions, and interact with other members. On the other hand, open events (public) allow all individuals to attend the event regardless of membership in a specific organization. Open events allow individuals to meet with others who share the same ideas/interests or to gain knowledge in a group setting (Hahm et al., 2016). Both types of events allow attendees to meet new individuals or reconnect with acquaintances. This networking enables individuals to build relationships with others and allows for future meetings.
Events traditionally have only been thought of as an in-person (live) setting. However, events can occur as an in-person setting or as a virtual setting. Virtual events are becoming a more prevalent platform for hosting events (Kim & Park, 2009; Sox et al., 2014). Virtual events, while different in format from face-to-face meetings, enable attendees to join together without the need of travel, allowing a potentially larger audience to participate. Changes and improvements in online video technology have created opportunities for significant advances in attendee engagement and satisfaction in virtual events (Kim & Park, 2009). While the format of a virtual event is different from a traditional face-to-face event, the group setting aspects still remain the same. Individuals come to the event as a group to achieve the same specific goal.
Behaviors
Research about event participant behaviors and motivations to attend various type of events is well documented (Kitchen, 2017; Lee & Back, 2009; Severt et al., 2007). Event participants attend for various reasons, with their behavior varied. Kitchen (2017) stated that attendees go to events for different reasons, with event behavior between passive and active. Borrowing from social identity theory, participant behavior can be informed by how they define themselves in terms of their membership to a group (Porck et al., 2020)
Attendees act in a certain way when they attend events (Fjelstul et al., 2009). They behave in a different manner than they would in their everyday home life. There are social mores, norms in the way they act at events, which are usually very different from the way they act when they are at home. Fjelstul et al. (2009) identified socialization and scheduling as two main motivators of event attendance.
A growing theme within the field of events is the emotional aspects of the attendee experience (Carneiro et al., 2019). Event attendees feel a sense of belonging when they attend an event. Event attendees may be attending the event as a part of a membership in an association or due to the desire to connect with other individuals in a specific discipline (Jung & Tanford, 2017; Ryu & Lee, 2013; Severt et al., 2007). In this type of situation, without an organization to create and manage an event, individuals would not participate and, therefore, would not experience the emotional experience of belonging. Through the event, the organization creates (or reinforces) a sense of belonging and allows for a structure for other individuals with similar interests to come together. In a recent study, Ryu and Lee (2013) found that academic association attendees engaged in an analogous professional discipline showed strong homogeneity and similar social identity. The researchers postulated that, to protect and enhance social identity, potential attendees likely register for a convention that serves as a vehicle to reflect their identity or images (Ryu & Lee, 2013). Furthermore, Wang and Cole (2016) identified that event attendees relied heavily on past experience when determining future event attendance. These experiences can occur both in business and leisure settings. Often, these events happen on a regular basis (e.g., annually, semiannually, biannually) and can be either in the same location or at a different one. A recurring event might rotate locations to allow easier access for attendees from various locations (Martin et al., 2017).
One of the most important elements that events facilitate is their ability to create an environment that is conducive to social interaction (Ayob et al., 2013). All events, particularly face-to-face events, create an environment where attendees can interact with other attendees (Lee & Back, 2009). This is often referred to as networking (Kitchen, 2017).
Networking is this bonding experience that drives attendance to events and motivates involvement (Fjelstul et al., 2009). It creates a sense of community that many event attendees find as the most important draw to an event. A common example of this is seen in corporate or association (membership) events. Networking, especially in a professional setting, is an enormous draw for attendance at an event (Mair, 2010). It is generally stated that a key part of networking is achieving some sort of a desired outcome (Lee & Back, 2009). Severt et al. (2007) assessed the ability to network at events by conducting performance evaluations. Their result indicated that networking opportunities were consistently rated highly. Networking allows individuals to become acquainted with many diverse individuals in a concentrated period of time. It also enables participants to build new relationships or strengthen existing relationships with those who share analogous interests. This networking is usually structured around some predetermined and scheduled activities.
Logistics
All events require a great deal of planning to be successful. Much of the planning revolves around the logistics of the event. Event logistics involve several aspects including (1) finding a suitable venue for the event purpose, (2) ensuring that the venue is accessible to all guests, (3) providing the basic comforts for attendees, and (4) ensuring that the venue contains the needed infrastructure to achieve the purpose of the event. Guests attending these events have certain expectations, and these expectations must be met. Carvache-Franco et al. (2019) identified that accessibility in terms of location and transportation, accommodation, destination assistance, expenses, and quality of services were all factors in participant’s decision to attend.
First and foremost, the venue must meet the purpose of the event (Renaghan & Kay, 1987). If the venue does not suit the purpose of the event, it will lead to an unsuccessful event. Furthermore, a venue must meet the physical needs of the event, such as the correct size, layout, audio visual equipment, and many more. Without this infrastructure, the event programing will not take place, leaving attendees feeling that the event is a waste of their time. The physical space where an event takes place must be the correct size to fit the needs of the event (Fenich, 2015). For example, if the space is too large, guests will feel that the event is empty and cavernous. If too small, guests will feel overcrowded and uncomfortable. Both are examples of why it is of the utmost importance to select the correct size of venue.
Over time, the necessary infrastructure has changed. As an example, audio/visual (AV) tools and cyber access both play a much larger role in events than they did in the distant past. At each event, there is a different degree of AV needed and/or cyber access provided (Fenich, 2019). At business events, user-friendly internet access, including a strong and fast Wi-Fi signal, is viewed as high importance by participants. At social events, such as a wedding, a sound system for music and entertainment plays a very critical role. While both are different occasions, the commonality at all events are the varying AV and cyber systems that are needed.
When selecting an event location, it is also important to ensure that it has the basic comforts that attendees anticipate. Event attendees expect appropriate heating or cooling, lighting, proper restroom facilities, and food and beverage services. When attendees agree to attend a specific event, they have expectations that these comforts will be met (Hilliard & Baloglu, 2008). While there are varying degrees of comforts depending on the type and quality of a venue, the minimum comforts must be met and are universal among all events. Breiter and Milman (2006), in a study of exhibition event attendees’ needs and service priorities, found that overall cleanliness of the convention center, a well-maintained facility, and helpfulness of guest services personnel were top priorities for attendees regarding facility logistics. Additionally, attendees showed high importance for directional signage within the convention center, availability of high-quality lodging, sufficient restrooms throughout the facility, and ability to get a cell phone signal.
During the process of venue selection, accessibility is very important for both the planner and the event participant (Hayat et al., 2014). There are numerous elements that should be taken into consideration when looking at accessibility (Hinkin & Tracy, 2003). Some of these are parking, disability accessibility, restrooms, and transportation to and from the event location. When selecting an event location, it should be one that is easy to access via any standard form of transportation, whether it be by plane, train, or automobile (Cassar et al., 2020). All event location must be disability accessible, which includes having access to elevators and escalators, handicap-accessible restrooms, and wheelchair access (Fenich, 2015).
A certain level of event infrastructure must also be available at all event venues. At a minimum, events will often need elements such as a podium, a stage, tables, and seating (Fenich, 2019). As stated earlier, there are certain comforts guests expect, and one of those is having a comfortable place to sit and eat during the event. Most events have some form of speaking and a location for equipment. This is usually presented in the form of a raised stage with a podium so all guests can see and hear the speakers.
Safety and Security
Maslow (1943), in developing the theory of human motivation, purported that safety was one of the five basic needs. As the second most fundamental need in his hierarchy, it follows that safety should be an important component of the physical space or servicescape of events. Few studies have investigated safety as a part of the servicescape, but some have found it to be a significant issue (Sigauw et al., 2019). In their study, Sigauw et al. (2019) explored safety within the scope the servicescape and found that while ambient conditions, physical spaces, and social interactions were evident, the element of safety was the most predominant concern.
There are several elements to be considered when it comes to safety and security at events. There is the physical safety of the attendees, safety equipment required at all events, food safety protocols, and crisis and disaster planning (Hilliard & Baloglu, 2008; Hinkin & Tracy, 2003). These elements are required at each event and are automatically expected by event attendees (Hinkin & Tracy, 2003). Fall (2004) determined that a plan for written crisis communication was vital to the overall framework for strategic communication as it enables event organizations to respond quickly and effectively. Also included in safety and security for events is cyber security. Communication and computing technology have both played a large part in the evolution and revamping of safety and crisis planning. Each of these elements requires different forms of planning to ensure that the elements of safety and security are preserved at every event (Pennington-Gray et al., 2011).
Attendees assume that their physical safety is secure when they agree to attend an event. According to Hinkin and Tracey (2003), this is an important element and is quite high on the priority list of meeting planners when they are developing an event. Security has been of increasing importance as a result of the rapid increase in physical incidents at events.
One of the most important elements attendees believe is that there exists a crisis and emergency plan that can be activated if needed (Pennington-Gray et al., 2011). These plans assure event participants that it is safe to attend the event and that if any issues of concern should arise, they will be handled with clarity and confidence. For example, in a post–September 11, 2001 era, event spaces have been shown to be proactive in revamping their safety and security processes and standards (Hilliard & Baloglu, 2008). Event attendees also assume that safety equipments, such as fire extinguishers and sprinkler systems, are installed and working properly (Hilliard & Baloglu, 2008). This equipment will act in tandem with a crisis and emergency plan, ensuring that the plans are complete and will provide the necessary protection for all event attendees. Hilliard and Baloglu (2008) determined that the three most important dimensions of safety and security attributes were (1) visible safety features, (2) documentation and staff training, and (3) general security features.
Every event typically has a different detailed crisis or emergency plan customized to that specific event (Mair et al., 2016). Many events will offer food and beverage to their attendees, and most attendees will expect to be fed. With offering food and beverage, there comes responsibility to provide attendees with a safe food option (Mair et al., 2016). There are safety codes all event venues must meet to certify that what is served to event attendees is handled safely. This also means that attendees expect food to be provided at the correct temperature, either hot or cold, depending on the dish. Reynolds and Dolasinski (2019) conducted a systematic review of industry food safety training topics and modalities. Their results showed that in-person training was the most widely used means to educate staff about food safety practices. By accomplishing this, attendee satisfaction will be higher and participants will be more likely to return again if the event is held more than once.
Elements of the Theory of Events
The key event components identified through the preceding literature review were used to generate the theory of events. The purpose of the theory is to capture and explain human behavior when engaged with events. In doing so, it should provide event providers and participants a framework for understanding what constitutes an event and should help explain human behavior when electing to participate in an event. The five key components of the theory as identified through the literature review are: (1) shared purpose, (2) group setting, (3) logistics, (4) safety and security, and (5) behaviors.
A shared purpose consists of two key aspects. First is clarity in understanding why an individual wants to attend the event. With the question of why attend answered, the participants can more easily find like-minded people who also wish to attend. Second, there is a known host, guide, or leader who is sponsoring the purpose of the event. Sometimes, this is an individual, but more often, it is an organization. For example, an event might be featuring a celebrity or a politician with wide name recognition. In that case, the host, guide, or leader is known as an individual. In other cases, the leader may be the host association, such as a nature society. The participant shares an interest in nature and wants to attend that event but does not necessarily know individual leaders or other participants of that organization.
The group setting has several recognizable features. First, it is about coming together at a fixed time. Second, it has an identifiable membership, which could be people who have formally joined an organization or informally as individuals who simply want to be associated with the group. The former would be considered closed or fixed groups while the latter are ad hoc or open invitation groups. Third, the size of the group can vary to any number beyond the minimum of two people. Finally, participants can be known to one another or be complete strangers. There is no requirement of a group that individuals should know one another prior to participation.
Logistics for events are the accommodating facility and services to support it. The first item is a suitable venue for the purpose, both in terms of size and scale. A sporting arena is not suitable for a business meeting, but it would be ideal for athletic competition because its size includes space for a playing field or race track. An elementary school classroom would not be suitable for a business meeting as the scale is incorrect. The desk and chairs in that classroom are designed for children, which means the desks are smaller than what adults would find comfortable. Size and scale are basic choices when beginning the meeting planning process.
Accessibility issues are the next item to consider. These issues include transportation, directions, parking, stairs, elevators, restrooms, disability access, and so on. Participants need to be able to easily maneuver from home to the event site. Consideration here includes both the external accessibility travel to the event location as well as internal accessibility in terms of navigating from the building entrance to the actual event space.
Participant basic comforts are also important aspects of a successful event. Basic comforts include lighting, heating, cooling, drinking water, and so on. Hallways, stairs, and event spaces must be adequately lit so that participants can see the function. The ambient temperature should be acceptable so that participants are not distracted because they are uncomfortable (too cold or too hot). Whether at a cost or no charge, water and other beverages should be readily available to ensure that participants are adequately hydrated as desired.
The infrastructure of an event can involve a number of features, including items such as seating, tables, catering, stage, podium, coat check, cyber access, and so on. Each item could play a useful role in the delivery of the event. The characteristics of the event will usually dictate which items are necessary for the event infrastructure.
Safety and security are provided for both the physical and the cyber needs of participants. The physical safety and security include any impact of weather, threat to persons (both inside the venue and externally in the immediate local area), human hygiene, food safety, emergency evacuation, and so on. The cyber security can be of differing types. If it is an in-person event, there is a need to utilize cyber tools in order to protect event technology, Wi-Fi networks, and user devices. If it is a virtual event, cyber tools are needed to protect the software platform hosting the event as well as connected user devices.
The final element in the theory are the behaviors of participants; that is, how participants engage during the event. This includes social mores, a sense of belonging, sociability, networking, and participation in planned activities. Social mores are typically followed as an appropriate code of conduct for the venue. For example, at a sports arena, casual clothing is very acceptable and loud cheers to support one competitor or another is expected. In contrast, a symphonic concert hall where a performance is underway would not find either casual clothing or loud cheers to be acceptable behavior.
The sense of belonging is a feeling of connection to the event and a comfort in being a part of it. Typically, participants want to have this sense of belonging as they have a shared purpose with other participants. It is a reinforcing feeling that helps the individual confirm that he or she is in the right place with the right group of people at the event. Sociability refers to a desire to seek companionship, engage in interpersonal relations, and participate in scheduled activities for the event. It is a step beyond a sense of belonging as it includes interacting with other participants.
This social interaction with others can be superficial whereby participants merely acknowledge one another. For many, that acknowledgment of the shared purpose is a sufficient emotional reward. However, for others, developing a relationship beyond acknowledgment is desired. It becomes about building connections, or networking, with others. There is a form of bonding that occurs. Members interact and share information about one another. They seek commonalities in their shared purpose, searching for more engagement with others as a furtherance of the emotional reward of attending the event.
Last, participation in planned event activities is included in the behavior component of the theory. Participation can be as simple as mere observation, such as a spectator at a sporting competition or sitting in the audience during a singing performance. This spectator does not have to directly engage with others (sociability) in order to feel participation in the event. In contrast, participation can be quite complex. The attendee could register for multiple activities that occur throughout the time of the event. Some of that activity could involve experiential learning or helping to facilitate. For most events, attendees can select his or her involvement in planned activities as desired.
Collectively, these elements can be used to create a model of the event experience (see Figure 1). As this is a holistic experience for the attendee, it cannot be presented linearly. That is, one step does not lead to another in some sort of succession. The multifaceted nature of event components enables each to occur simultaneously for the attendee. Thus, the visual representation of these elements is reflective of the multiple aspects that occur together. Some are more important than others at certain moments. An emphasis on one element can shift quickly toward another. It is a kaleidoscope, often changing in terms of which aspect is of greatest importance to the attendee at any given time.
Model of the Event Experience
Conclusion
The theory of events is predicated on the participant’s perspective of an event. The theory identifies the five key aspects of the event experience of the attendees. Each element is necessary yet not sufficient by itself in contributing toward the event experience.
Researchers can use this information to structure research projects that delve deeper into the event experience for either the provider or the attendee. Industry event leaders can use this information to better understand the range of elements that require management in the production of an event. The model presents an understanding of the range of elements involved as well as the multifaceted, ever-shifting needs of the participant. Satisfying one or two elements will not create a complete event experience for the attendee. Designing and delivering events that incorporate space (functionally, conceptually, and emotionally) for all five elements to occur simultaneously will aid the participant in receiving a complete event experience.
