Abstract
Introduction
When I was asked to write an article about the use of teaching cases for this special issue, I wondered why someone outside the advertising field was asked. I set aside my question and quickly said yes to the invitation because I strive to be an evangelist for the case method and above all, I was asked by treasured colleagues.
As a start, I decided to review published teaching cases over the last 10 years concerning advertising and related fields in case journals before drawing any conclusions. It was quite revealing and fun to conduct this search, and I found many published cases in the related field of marketing but much fewer advertising cases. Hence, I decided to embark on a more comprehensive online search in textbooks, traditional advertising journals, and case journals. Teaching cases that focus on advertising are commonplace in business textbooks; yet, fewer appear in traditional case journals, and even fewer advertising cases are published in traditional advertising journals. I became curious about trends in advertising teaching cases and decided to survey overall trends in teaching cases related to advertising cases.
Sample Format for Rating Teaching Case Trends Over Last Decade (2010–2020).
Source: Author’s Notes (2021).
Summary of Top Teaching Case Trends Over Last Decade (2010–2020).
Source: Author’s Notes (2021).
This November 2021 special issue of the Journal of Advertising Education Cases in International and Multicultural Advertising seeks to do its part to improve the representation of published teaching cases on the topic of advertising.
I am pleased to support this trend toward greater publication of teaching cases in advertising journals with this article and will focus on challenges and opportunities related to the top five items in my survey (see Table 2).
Importance and Top Five Trends in Published Teaching Cases
Second Tier Teaching Case Trends Over Last Decade (2010–2020).
Source: Author’s Notes (2021).
1. Impact of Technology Advances on Case Methodology and Use
The survey results in Table 2 indicate advancing technology is the most important item related to changes in published teaching cases, and it is also a major trend in case writing. This finding did not surprise me because advancing technology seems to be a major driver of change in many fields and research methodologies. Several case researchers related advancing technology to adaptive learning (doing by immersion) and noted cases are among the educational materials that are the best approach for students to take an active role in their learning (Naumes & Naumes, 2011; McGuire & Whaley, 2017). However, McGuire and Whaley (2017) contend a key to adaptive learning is the integration of the learner and advancing technology.
McGuire and Whaley (2017) suggest the boundaries and format of case studies are only limited by our imagination. Thus, advancing technology offers exciting new opportunities for developing teaching cases that need to be balanced with their challenges. One of the early technological advances beyond the written case was video technology. It was noted in the early development of video applications for cases that attention to different student learning styles may be an opportunity to achieve deeper student engagement and learning (Saunders, 1997). As video technology advanced, teachers began to use movies, TV special reports, and video CDs before discussion of a case in class to engage the student with visual learning styles and technology savvy students to bring a greater sense of realism into the class discussion (Leenders et al., 2001; Naumes & Naumes, 2011; McGuire & Whaley, 2017). Multimedia technology was most likely the next advance and it allowed authors to embed links to videos, databases, industry reports, and other content. Now, novice and experienced case writers alike had the capability inside a case for readers to “jump around” and control the pace and intensity of the case experience (Leenders, et al., 2001; Naumes & Naumes, 2011; McGuire & Whaley, 2017).
Advancing digital technology, social media, and the proliferation of mobile phones have influenced case methodology and increased the possibility of creating live cases where the case can be shot on video, and the protagonist can be brought into the class (Mishra & Dey, 2020, 2021). Once new but now maturing technologies such as artificial intelligence, virtual reality, and enhanced reality tend to engage many students when it is immersed into teaching cases. Again, the integration of learners and advancing technology is essential to effective learning. For instance, the presence of Gen Z and millennials in the classrooms and multigenerational workforce at workplaces, together with advancing technology, impact the focus of case writing (Mishra & Dey, 2020, 2021). Additionally, the integration of the learner and advancing technology enhances opportunities for collaborations among authors, protagonists, reviewers, and students and allows them to have similar experiences (McGuire & Whaley, 2017; Mishra & Dey, 2021).
The case method has adjusted and survived many challenges, such as advancing technology in the last 100 years, yet what specific challenges are next? Technology-based cases can be expensive to produce at a professional level, require instructional design and technical media expertise, and can blur the traditional intellectual property boundaries associated with written cases. For example, unique formats such as graphic novels (comic books) are partly advanced technology and a mix of visual arts and graphic skills that often appeal to visual learners and many younger learners. McGuire and Whaley (2017) report that the previously mentioned advantages and disadvantages of multimedia cases also apply to graphic novel cases. Writing skills remain important for multimedia cases, but other skills such as instruction design (storyboarding), graphic artistry, and advanced digital technology skills are essential for developing these cases. Numerous case researchers have suggested that the impactful role of advancing technology is a trend, and rebuilding the relevance of cases as an advanced learning tool assumes the utmost importance (McGuire & Whaley, 2017; Mishra & Dey, 2020; Dey et al., 2021).
Lee (2019) indicates that digital technologies have disrupted the creative process in advertising, and many ad agencies now look for graduates with digital graphic skills instead of standard graphic software skills. Therefore, I contend the creative aspect of the advertising curriculum provides fertile opportunities for technology-focused teaching cases. For instance, the once advanced technologies such as virtual reality, twitter, and artificial intelligence (AI), have matured, and education-based articles about these technologies have recently begun to appear in traditional advertising journals such as the Journal of Advertising and Education (Lou, 2017; Li, 2019; Gangadharbatla, 2020; Rodgers, 2021). Would an average advertising student be able to make feasible recommendations for key problems in a decision-based case where the decision-maker has to decide whether to design a United States company advertisement for domestic consumption the “old fashion people-intensive way” or through the use of AI technology and emphasize issues such as cost, culture, and effectiveness metrics? After assigned readings or lectures on different consumer tastes around the world, would an average advertising student be able to address whether the combination of AI technology makes it more difficult or easier to develop ads for the 2021 Olympics in Japan regarding United States consumer products sold to multiple countries? Would a twitter-based advertising campaign surpass the effectiveness of other social media based on data analytics? I believe these aforementioned types of technology-focused case studies should fit the theme for the upcoming 2021 JAE special issue regarding Cases in International and Multicultural Advertising.
2. Short or Compact Cases
In the case writing community, short cases are referred to as brief, compact, or critical incidents (Berger et al., 2012; McGuire & Whaley, 2017; Cellucci et al., 2018). McGuire and Whaley (2017) assert that short cases can be descriptive or decisional in terms of the key decision-makers’ time stamp in the case but what they have in common is brevity (1–4 pages), focusing on one event or issue, and little context. One popular teaching case journal, the Journal of Critical Incidents (JCI), publishes short cases or critical incidents that do not exceed three single-spaced pages, and each incident tells a story about an event, an experience, a blunder, or a success (JCI, 2017).
Berger et al. (2012) noted that as education changed over the years, so did case writing and one notable trend was case publications moved toward shorter cases. My recent anecdotal evidence suggests the trend toward shorter cases started in the previous decade and accelerated over the last 10 years. The survey results in Table 2 support this movement toward shorter cases as a trend and indicates the move toward short cases was ranked only second to advancing technology as a major driver of change.
There are many reasons for the increased popularity of short cases. Since traditional cases emphasize several contexts, it is often difficult to “cram” multiple decision-makers, topics, and contexts in the shorter, compact case format. It has been noted in the case literature that short cases address the trend toward many readers’ short attention spans, short cases cost less to print, and they can be taught in a 50 to 75 minute class with minimal prep time (McGuire & Whaley, 2017). Short cases are typically published at the end of a textbook chapter or in specialized journals such as the Journal of Critical Incidents (JCI); however, traditional case journals publish short cases in regular issues and special issues. Increasingly, case teaching venues exist outside academia, and the quick pace of corporate training requires mini (short) cases or other learning activities as short as 30 minutes (Giulioni & Voloshin 2014).
The shorter or more compact form of teaching case might have special appeal to the field of advertising education in general but especially curricula that emphasize the portfolio approach to education. Not only does the portfolio approach emphasize the integration of key concepts and skills on the creative side of advertising, it embraces a wide range of accumulated student experiences. If a student demonstrates reasonable responses to discussion questions usually found in the teaching notes that accompany cases based on advertising scenarios and other business concepts learned in advertising classes, this could show a breath of accumulated student experiences valued by potential employers. Most advertising curriculum reviews point out the importance of the advertising capstone course to ensure a place for the integration of theory, applications, and creative skills accumulated through student experiences (Scovotti & Spiller, 2009; Scovotti et al., 2011; Whitlow, 2014; Lee, 2019). Therefore, in addition to a strategic integration of concepts in a capstone advertising course, a series of teaching cases could be integrated into the capstone course to use adaptive learning and demonstrate a breadth of contemporary topics and company experiences. A required series of short cases that cover traditional ad campaigns with data analytics, social media, artificial intelligence, and international and multicultural advertising would demonstrate the breadth of adaptive, vicarious learning experiences that would be a competitive advantage for recent advertising graduates when compared to their traditionally trained peers. My survey results in Table 2 support the importance (rated 2 out of 10) and the trend toward short teaching case formats. Several case journals have recently developed special issues on short cases, and popular topical themes such as diversity.
3. Broader Use of Secondary Only Sources in Published Cases
Case authors typically use a combination of primary and secondary data sources to develop their manuscripts, and each method has advantages and disadvantages (Naumes & Naumes, 2011; Taylor & Søndergaard, 2017). When the source of information in a case is the participants in the organization, the participants are usually considered primary data sources as compared to secondary data that comes from sources that are already published. Traditional case writing gravitates toward using primary data sources, but secondary only cases are growing in popularity and were ranked third in my survey (see Table 2). In keeping with this trend, the guest editors of the upcoming 2021 JAE special issue regarding Cases in International and Multicultural Advertising indicated that both primary and secondary are welcome.
Several case researchers note the preference for primary data sources because the direct connection of primary data to the protagonist or organization is believed to reduce or eliminate one source of participant-observer bias (Naumes & Naumes, 2011; Taylor & Søndergaard, 2017). Mishra and Dey (2020) go a bit further and strongly advocate using “primary data only” in case writing. Mishra and Dey (2020) have championed a form of case writing called phenomenon-based cases that use only primary data and merge the theory from the traditional teaching note into the case format (see item # 10). The South Asian Journal of Business and Management Cases is now devoted exclusively to these types of cases. Mishra and Dey (2020) contend the practice of using secondary data in case writing is a practice they want to change, not only because they believe it is primitive but also because they believe secondary data do little to further understanding of the phenomenon under question. Additionally, these authors note that cases crafted with secondary data sources evolve around the context and provide an answer to the “what” question but fail to study either a behavioral phenomenon or the strategy adopted by the firm (Mishra & Dey, 2020). These authors acknowledge that sometimes it is not practical to gather primary data, and they suggest a form of data triangulation called thematic case writing in this situation (Mishra & Dey, 2020; Dey & Mishra, 2021).
Yet, cases are often written with “secondary only” data sources, and several researchers indicate the use of secondary data for cases is on the rise (Cellucci, et al., 2018; Mishra & Dey, 2020). My survey supports the conclusion that secondary data sources only teaching cases are growing in importance and have become a trend (see Table 2). A number of factors contribute to the growing popularity of secondary data sources for case writing and publishing. Many researchers note that sometimes the protagonists or decision-makers are not always accessible or available (Naumes & Naumes, 2011; McGuire & Whaley, 2017). Often top managers and organizations prefer data privacy, fear the loss of a perceived competitive advantage when critical information such as non-public financial information is provided in a case, or fear future legal exposure. Also, the case might reveal unethical behavior or personal embarrassment for the protagonist or organization, and key decision-makers do not want to be interviewed “on the record.” Disguised cases can mitigate these concerns to some extent, yet some universities require authors to obtain institutional review board (IRB) approval for human subjects when interviewing people for a published case which might become an administrative and time hurdle for case authors. Peer-reviewed journals usually require authors to obtain publication waivers from primary sources used in the case, but authors do not need to obtain a publication waiver to publish cases based entirely on secondary sources because the data is not private and it avoids the requirement for informed consent (Naumes & Naumes, 2011; McGuire & Whaley, 2017).
My interpretation of the authors’ argument in 50 Ways to Enhance Student Career Success in and out of Advertising and Marketing Classrooms is the desire for authenticity and people orientation in the advertising curriculum might promote using teaching cases based on primary data (Scovotti, et al., 2011). Yet, similar forces that are moving teaching cases toward greater use of secondary only cases in other disciplines appear to be operating in the field of advertising. It is often much easier for case authors to find materials to develop a case through an online search of published sources than to convince top officials in the organization to cooperate where no personal contacts in the organization exist to be interviewed on the record. Additionally, structural changes in the advertising industry over the last decade have influenced the field research approach of case writers. Lee (2019) noted two major structural changes in the advertising industry over the last decade are the rise of consultancies (i.e., Accenture Interactive, PwC Digital Services, IBM iX, and Deloitte Digital) and the resurgence of in-house agencies. The perceived need to protect company intellectual property by these primary sources might increase their reluctance to provide (interviews or non-public financial data) and require case writers to rely entirely on secondary sources. Hence, it would not be surprising to see a larger number of secondary sources only cases submitted to the upcoming 2021 JAE special issue regarding Cases in International and Multicultural Advertising because of the intellectual property issues previously mentioned, the sensitivity of the multicultural topic, and the reluctance of some protagonists in organizations outside the United States to be interviewed on the record by United States-based case writers.
4. Growth of Descriptive Cases
Decision-based cases look forward in time and require recommendations to address key problems. Alternatively, descriptive cases look backward in time and assess actions that have been taken by a protagonist or organization and ask the student to suggest improvements (Naumes & Naumes, 2011; Berger, et al., 2012; Peters et al, 2012; Davis et al., 2014; McGuire & Whaley, 2017). The decision-focused case is the most common type of business management teaching case and has become the standard for comparing all other case formats. Anecdotally, I have heard all too often, “the only good case is a decision case!” Although the decision-focused case is the most common type of teaching case, many valid reasons exist for case authors to prefer a descriptive format over the traditional decision format. Some case researchers and practitioners believe the decision-focused case format has a few built-in structural biases and has received some robust criticism over the last 2 decades (Lundberg et al., 2001; McGuire & Whaley, 2017). Thus, the descriptive case format has grown in popularity as an alternative to the traditional decision-based case. Table 2 supports this notion concerning the growth in descriptive cases, and it shows descriptive cases were ranked fourth out of the top ten changes in case writing trends over the last decade.
Lundberg et al. (2001) assert that one structural bias of decision-based cases leads students to believe that every situation requires a decision, and they conclude it limits adaptive learning. Additionally, these authors argue this case format reinforces the presumption that all problems can and should be solved (Lundberg et al., 2001). Furthermore, students with this mindset may not develop an appreciation for “real world” situations where decisions cannot be made, and their sense of coping and experimentation with ambiguity may tend to be underdeveloped (Lundberg et al., 2001). Bridgman (2010) also notes that decision-focused cases used in business ethics courses under-emphasize the social, political, and economic factors which shape managerial decisions. Additionally, Bridgman (2010) observes that many case writers end their decision-focused cases with a list of recommendations or alternative paths to follow that might limit creative and critical thinking by students. This typical student approach to decision-based cases defeats the desired learning objectives of most case writers to expand the critical thinking skills and adaptive learning of the students. I have noticed this student behavior with traditional decision-based cases in my classes when a list of alternatives is provided in the closing hook. I continue to use well-developed decision cases in my classes, but I have moved away from the traditional structure of providing a list of alternatives because students tend to limit their recommendations only to the list provided and overlook other legitimate alternatives.
Like decision cases, descriptive cases also focus on adaptive learning methods but do not require a decision. Of course, selecting a descriptive case for class assignments would depend on the course, the students, and the specific class learning objectives. The main purpose of descriptive cases is to tell the story in a retrospective format that might be more effective with students to exercise critical thinking and analysis skills and expose them to a plethora of organizations, policies, and managerial practices. Descriptive cases take several different forms, and some purely descriptive cases seek to inform the reader about an organization (its history, milestones, and approaches to business) and the policies the organization has adopted (McGuire & Whaley, 2017). Other descriptive cases are intended to be “memorable examples” of a well-known organization, whether positive or negative, typical of its industry or counter-intuitive (Swiercz, 2000; McGuire & Whaley, 2017). Some descriptive cases attempt to document the effectiveness of leaders’ plans or styles and ask students what to endorse or reject the leader’s plans or styles. McGuire and Whaley (2017) indicate several flagship case journals prefer decision-based teaching cases but publish exceptional descriptive cases when a decision focus is not practicable. Despite the clear preference for decision-based cases, descriptive cases have become more widespread for teaching and publication (McGuire & Whaley, 2017; Cellucci et al., 2018).
Case selection and/or development can be a complex process, and as previously mentioned, the key factors related to selecting teaching cases vary widely depending on the course, the students, and the specific learning objectives. Advertising professors Gale and Kreshel (2006) contend two of the most important questions to ask prior to developing case learning objectives or selecting cases for particular courses are (1) at what cognitive level are the students? (2) what are the education objectives/outcomes sought? Gale and Kreshel (2006) argue that challenging students to use higher-order learning skills prior to their mastery of lower-level skills is apt to create frustration for both student and instructor. Anecdotally, some instructors using the case method have advised me that it is easier for inexperienced students to criticize the decisions of the key decision-maker than develop creative decisions on their own. However, Agarwal (2019) cautions instructors not to automatically omit higher-level learning from inexperienced student learning situations. The bottom line is that selecting either descriptive or decision-based cases should be goal-driven and not tradition-bound.
Are the only good advertising cases decisional cases? Would an instructor be better off selecting a descriptive or decision-based case for an introductory advertising class that the instructor wants to reinforce positive concepts related to intercultural sensitivity concerning skin or hair products in an advertising campaign? Should the case selection decision change if the learning objective is to recognize and discuss the advantages and disadvantages of adapting culturally specific promotions as a means to build a strong brand? As pointed out, there are many factors to consider in this decision, such as the timing of the assignment, the diversity of student’s work experiences, the diversity of students in the class, the consumer buying concepts covered, the depth of the previous cultural class discussion, and how well-written is the case. All things being equal, I would argue for using backward in time-looking descriptive cases in this scenario for an undergraduate advertising class that is assigned in the first half of the semester. For example, I have read several published Dove skincare cases, and the more effective ones I have reviewed have been descriptive cases (see Brooks et al., 2020). Thus, instructors in introductory classes of an undergraduate advertising curriculum might favor descriptive cases for the first case assignment early in the semester to assist students in growing and developing topic-specific critical thinking and subject matter content. After students have been exposed to basic advertising and management concepts, a mixture of descriptive and decision-based cases would assist less knowledgeable and inexperienced students in adapting to case writing. The Call for Papers in the upcoming 2021 JAE special issue regarding Cases in International and Multicultural Advertising indicated both descriptive and decisional cases would be accepted, which should broaden the pool of recent descriptive cases available in these two special international and multicultural settings.
5. Growth in Cases Published in Discipline-Based Journals
Although cases are an accepted research methodology, Rowley (2002) explains that case studies as a research method or strategy have traditionally been viewed as lacking rigor and objectivity when compared with other social science research methods. This negative view of case research and teaching cases has softened and become more positive. Since most discipline-based journals tend to emphasize experiential research and career tips, historically, few cases have been included in these journals. However, teaching cases have appeared more frequently in discipline journals in this decade than in the past. Anecdotally speaking, some editors of discipline-based journals have indicated the growth in teaching cases in their respective journals demonstrate their desire to meet two goals at the same time: (1) emphasize applications of theory and research findings to a particular setting or context and (2) serve the journal’s business goals to broaden the journal readership. The detailed nature of many discussion questions in peer-reviewed teaching cases usually includes appropriate theory and specific applications that might enrich the traditional applications section of empirical research studies. The inclusion of theory and applications in the teaching note should attract more readership from those faculty most interested in advances in research but not familiar with teaching cases. The inclusion of teaching cases in the same journal volume or issues as regular research articles might increase the exposure of teaching cases to research-oriented faculty and the probability the case might be cited and increase visibility. Practitioners tend to shy away from heavy research and theory-based journals for classroom instruction materials but do not usually shy away from case studies. If more teaching case journals included articles or pedagogical notes that covered advances in pertinent management theories, I believe the readership of case and discipline-based journals would expand. Nevertheless, Table 2 indicates a trend toward more teaching cases included in discipline-based journals. Perhaps a special issue in a case journal that includes several pedagogical notes emphasizing advances in management theory would help to improve the case readership.
My survey results in Table 2 and the upcoming 2021 JAE special issue regarding Cases in International and Multicultural Advertising are additional testaments to the increased interest in teaching cases by discipline-based journals. The current readership of traditional advertising journals might find the mix of research and practitioner-based articles in the same journal refreshing and appealing. Furthermore, this mix might also lead to other changes in the structure of teaching cases that, in turn, might help faculty with student adaptive learning. The respondents to my survey indicated item # 9 and item # 10 (see Table 3) were noteworthy but unclear about whether they formed a clear trend. These two items might be particularly appealing to journals that focus on advertising careers. Item # 9 has garnered some interest in the case writing community as “multiple contexts” or “industry cases,” and item # 10 has generated interest among case writers with interest in “phenomenon-based cases” or “thematic cases.” Often special issues of journals are used to flesh out emerging but unclear areas in the literature. Hence, future special issues in case journals could be used to flesh out unclear topics or applications in these two items.
Importance and Trends for Secondary Items in Published Teaching Cases
Although items # 6 through # 10 in Table 2 were not rated in the top five in terms of important changes, several were rated as trends in the literature. Items # 6 and # 7 were rated as trends, and respondents were not sure whether items # 8, # 9, and # 10 were trends. These items present a number of challenges and issues in the fundamentals of case writing among teaching case enthusiasts but have not generated a clear consensus toward the amount, direction, and severity of these changes.
Yet, these issues are controversial enough to the case writing community that they bear watching as emerging issues. I have labeled these five items (# 6 through # 10) as second tier items. Table 3 lists these second-tier items, and general comments are offered regarding their importance in the literature and whether trends exist.
Conclusion
Although I have used cases in teaching students for many years, my own path as a researcher and case writer started with traditional experiential research and slowly evolved into case writing. The more cases I wrote and published, I found a community of case writers in case journals and discipline-based journals that expanded my view of the untapped potential of the case method. I am deeply grateful to the editors, former editors, and members of journal editorial boards for case and discipline-based business journals in the growing community of case enthusiasts that responded to my survey. The survey results (see Table 2) indicate exciting changes have happened to case writing and teaching over the last decade that might accelerate the trend toward more engaging teaching cases. I trust this article will reflect some of this untapped potential and encourage nascent and experienced case writers alike to address important problems in the field of advertising in this 2021 JAE special issue and beyond.
My career as a case writer, case editor, member of editorial boards, and case method evangelist have been personally and professionally rewarding. I trust others will find similar joys and intriguing challenges in their own case writing journey. Perhaps this article will encourage faculty in the field of advertising and other disciplines to write, publish, and use additional advertising teaching cases in their classes.