Abstract
As educators move into a new era of educational reform, it becomes imperative that teachers use evidence-based instructional practices shown to be effective for students with disabilities. One area that plays a role in this process is secondary transition. The National Secondary Transition Technical Assistance Center has identified 63 evidence-based practices for teaching secondary students with disabilities. One critical component in this process is the dissemination and implementation of these practices with high fidelity. Methods for disseminating and implementing these practices with high fidelity are discussed.
The National Longitudinal Transition Study (NLTS, NLTS-2) and other researchers have been tracking postschool outcomes of students with disabilities since the 1980s (Hasazi, Gordon, & Roe, 1985; Heal & Rusch, 1994; Newman, Wagner, Cameto, Knokey, & Shaver, 2010). Although postschool outcomes in the areas of postschool employment, education, and independent living have improved, students with disabilities still lag behind their peers without disabilities in accessing postschool opportunities. In a recent NLTS-2 report, Newman et al. (2010) reported 45.6% of youth with disabilities were enrolled in postsecondary education compared with 62.6% of youth without disabilities. Employment outcomes were more promising in that 56.3% of youth with disabilities were employed compared with 59.1% of youth without disabilities. Finally, 22.7% of youth with disabilities were living independently compared with 28.0% of youth without disabilities (Newman et al., 2010).
To improve outcomes for all students, federal legislation has mandated that teachers use scientifically based research practices to teach students (Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act, 2004; No Child Left Behind, 2001). Most recently, the P-16 Pipeline education reform initiative challenged states to develop comprehensive plans for all students as they move through school-age years into postschool life (National Governors Association, 2010). Specifically, the P-16 Pipeline calls for collaboration and integration across all educational settings (i.e., early, elementary, middle, secondary, postsecondary) to improve outcomes for all students (National Governors Association, 2010). As educators move into this new era of educational reform, it becomes imperative that teachers implement educational practices based on research with fidelity, which have been shown to be effective for students with disabilities (Cook, Tankersley, & Harjusola-Webb, 2008).
One area that plays an important role in this process is secondary transition. Secondary students with disabilities require an effective transition-focused education to successfully transition into postschool life (Kohler & Field, 2003). Therefore, educators must have knowledge of evidence-based practices in secondary transition to understand “what works” for teaching secondary students with disabilities (Test et al., 2009). To meet this need, the National Secondary Transition Technical Assistance Center (NSTTAC) was funded by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs, to identify and disseminate evidence-based practices in secondary transition at state and local levels.
Since 2006, NSTTAC has conducted an ongoing review of all experimental research involving secondary transition practices. To facilitate this process, NSTTAC developed quality indicators for identifying evidence-based practices using recommendations from the Institute for Education Sciences and a special issue of Exceptional Children, which provided guidelines for identifying evidence-based practices using group experimental research (Gersten et al., 2005) and single-subject research (Horner et al., 2005). The quality indicator checklists were used to determine the quality of each research study reviewed. Through these checklists, NSTTAC identified studies that were of acceptable or high quality to develop the secondary transition evidence base (Test et al., 2009). In addition to the quality indicator checklists, NSTTAC developed decision rules to determine the levels of evidence (i.e., strong, moderate, or potential) for each of the evidence-based practices identified. 1
As a result of NSTTAC’s literature review, 63 evidence-based practices for teaching secondary students with disabilities have been identified. The majority of the practices represent methods and strategies for student skill development (e.g., life skills, self-determination skills, functional academic skills, vocational skills). The remaining evidence-based practices reflect instruction to teach students to participate in the transition planning process, facilitate family involvement, and provide strategic methods to enhance program structures in secondary transition. In addition to the above evidence-based practices, which primarily focus on teaching self-determination, life, and career/vocational skills, NSTTAC has identified evidence-based academic interventions for secondary students with disabilities that include mnemonic strategies, peer assistance, self-management strategies, technological interventions, and visual displays (Dugan, Cobb, & Alwell, 2007; Winokur, Cobb, & Dugan, 2007; Wolgemuth, Cobb, & Alwell, 2008; Wolgemuth, Trujillo, Cobb, & Alwell, 2008). Finally, these evidence-based practices provide schools and teachers with methods to promote knowledge and skill development for secondary students with disabilities. 2
Suggestions for Disseminating Evidence-Based Practices
Dissemination is a critical step in the widespread adoption and implementation of evidence-based practice in any field. Psychology, medicine, and education have frameworks for disseminating evidence-based practices aimed at reaching the practitioner level. Determining effective means of disseminating evidence-based practices is an important element in bridging the research-to-practice gap that nearly all disciplines face.
As a technical assistance (TA) provider to all U.S. states and territories, NSTTAC has multiple methods for disseminating information regarding evidence-based secondary transition practices that improve postschool outcomes including (a) the NSTTAC website, (b) semiannual secondary transition state planning institutes, (c) NSTTAC bimonthly newsletter, (d) participation in national and regional events, and (e) targeted TA and professional development at the state, regional, and districts levels. The sections below provide more detail concerning how these tools allow for successful dissemination of evidence-based practices in secondary transition.
NSTTAC Website
The NSTTAC website (www.nsttac.org) provides efficient and practical means of disseminating evidence-based practices and other useful products to special education professionals. In today’s world of evolving technology, electronic accessibility to readily available tools is critical. NSTTAC’s website has a specific section dedicated to evidence-based practices. For each practice, a description is provided that includes (a) the level of evidence (strong, moderate, potential) identified by NSTTAC, (b) with whom the practice has been implemented, (c) how the practice or instruction has been implemented, (d) the setting or settings in which the practice has been implemented, (d) how the practice relates to the items on the Indicator 13 checklist, (e) how the practice relates to the Common Core Standards, (f) the best place to find out how to teach the practice (links to sample lesson plan starters), and (g) references used to establish the evidence base (see Figure 1 for a sample practice description). Each practice description also provides links on NSTTAC’s website to research-to-practice lesson plan starters. The lesson plan starters are perhaps the most practical resource for classroom use. Each lesson plan starter contains the (a) lesson objective, (b) setting and materials, (c) content taught, (d) teaching procedures, (e) evaluation method, and (d) the research study/studies on which the lesson plan was based (see Figure 2 for a sample research-to-practice lesson plan starter). Demonstration videos are available on the website that walk through all evidence-based practice resources.
NSTTAC practice description: Using one-more-than strategy to teach purchasing skills.
NSTTAC lesson plan starter: Using one-more-than strategy to teach purchasing skills.
Transition Planning Institutes
Another way NSTTAC disseminates secondary transition evidence-based practices is through semiannual state transition planning institutes hosted with its collaborative partners, the National Post-School Outcomes Center, the National Dropout Prevention Center for Students With Disabilities, Individuals With Disabilities Education Act Partnership, and the regional resource centers. By attending these institutes, state teams learn more about building capacity necessary to provide evidence-based secondary transition education to students by having access to content experts on secondary transition and being updated on evidence-based practices.
Bimonthly Newsletter
The electronic bimonthly newsletter distributed by NSTTAC is also a key in disseminating up-to-date secondary transition resources. The newsletter is distributed through a listserv of those who have subscribed and is also available on the website. The e-newsletter has a “Dissemination” tab that provides information on current dissemination and outreach efforts, including an electronic resource map that allows states to share their effective transition-related efforts and other useful resources. In addition, the newsletter provides updates made to NSTTAC’s website, current announcements, upcoming events, funding opportunities, and other resources for stakeholders looking to improve secondary transition services.
Local and National Presentations
NSTTAC also disseminates information on secondary transition evidence-based practices through local and national presentation opportunities, such as the Council for Exceptional Children convention held each year. NSTTAC staff members also present at local and statewide conferences as a way to expose special educators to evidence-based practices and other effective secondary transition resources.
Targeted TA and Professional Development
In addition to presenting at conferences, NSTTAC also assists stakeholders at the state, regional, and local levels in providing targeted TA in improving evidence-based education in secondary transition. This TA often comes in the form of half- or full-day workshops that provide special educators with in-depth information on secondary transition evidence-based practices and how best to implement them in the classroom setting. To assist states and local school districts with their own professional development efforts in the area of secondary transition, NSTTAC also created 1- and 3-hr presenter guides on various secondary transition topics (i.e., Indicator 13, transition assessment, self-determination) that include discussion and use of evidence-based practices. These guides include ready-made power points, scripted notes, and all necessary materials needed to complete activities included in each presentation.
Implementing Evidence-Based Practices With Integrity
Cook et al. (2008) recommended educators implement evidence-based practices as their first option when trying to improve student academic or behavioral performance. They suggested that by using evidence-based practices, educators can have increased confidence that implementing their instructional practices as designed will provide the greatest chance of improving student outcomes. Implementing a practice as designed is called treatment integrity.
Treatment Integrity Defined
The concept of treatment integrity has been around for several decades and been called by a variety of names, including procedural reliability (Billingsley, White, & Munson, 1980), independent variable reliability (Peterson, Homer, & Wonderlich, 1982), treatment fidelity (Moncher & Prinz, 1991), and treatment adherence (Perepletchikova & Kazdin, 2005). No matter what the name, treatment integrity has typically been defined as “the degree to which a treatment is implemented as planned” (Gresham, MacMillan, Beebe-Frankenberger, & Bocian, 2000, p. 234).
This seemingly simple definition masks what many believe to be a critical variable impacted by a number of factors, including the complexity of the intervention (Gresham et al., 2000), student and teacher variables (Detrich, 1999), and need for ongoing supervision (Symes, Remington, Brown, & Hastings, 2006). In spite of the factors that can hinder implementing evidence-based practices with integrity, strategies are available to increase treatment integrity in everyday practice.
Strategies for Increasing Treatment Integrity
Joyce and Showers (2002) summarized research on teacher training and found that although practice and feedback in training resulted in approximately 60% of participants demonstrating knowledge and new skills in the training setting, only 5% of participants used the new skills in their classroom. However, using coaching in the classroom resulted in 95% of participants demonstrating knowledge and new skill in the training center as well as using the new skill in their classroom. Recently, a series of studies have demonstrated that classroom coaching using a rehearsal (either before class or in vivo) combined with performance feedback (either graphic, verbal, or written) was an effective strategy for improving treatment integrity (DiGennaro, Martens, & Kleinmann, 2007; Gilbertson, Witt, Singletary, & VanDerHeyden, 2007; Sterling-Turner, Watson, & Moore, 2002). For example, if a teacher was trying to learn to use the “one-more-than” strategy to teach students to count money, the teacher could be “coached” (given instruction and reminders on how to implement the strategy) either immediately before the class or during the class. Then following classroom instruction, feedback could be provided on what the teacher did correctly, what could be improved, and how to improve her future instruction of the strategy.
Together, these findings have implications for school system personnel who recognize that the fidelity with which an evidence-based practice is implemented will ultimately determine the impact on student learning and behavior. First, educators commonly attend training sessions related to a new curriculum, practice, or behavioral intervention that exclusively occur prior to implementation; however, findings indicated that instruction of this type is largely insufficient. Therefore, this training should be with ongoing rehearsal and performance feedback. Second, performance feedback should be provided on both teacher and student behavior if it is to be effective in increasing treatment integrity.
Summary
Although postschool outcomes for students with disabilities continue to improve, there is still a need for effective instruction and support during high school to allow for successful transition to postschool life. For this reason, the use of evidence-based practices such as those identified by NSTTAC is central in providing effective transition-focused education. As described above, identifying secondary transition evidence-based practices is only half the battle. Disseminating and implementing evidence-based practices with high fidelity are critical steps in truly changing teacher and student behavior.
Footnotes
Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
Funding
The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.