Collecting and using data on police use of force is a complex issue. The process the authors suggest applies the force factor methodology to understanding police use of force relative to suspect resistance in interactive and sequential encounters. Agencies that adopt the force factor approach will learn about their officers, supervisors, and encounters with the public they serve. Although this process is fairly complex and may be difficult to implement, it will provide important information to agencies and the public.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Alpert, G. P., & Dunham, R. G. (1997). The force factor: Measuring police use of force relative to suspect resistance. Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum.
2.
Alpert, G. P., Dunham, R. G., Smith, M., Kenney, D., & Madden, T. (2001). The force factor: Measuring police use of force relative to suspect resistance. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice.
3.
Alpert, G. P., & Smith, W. C. Developing police policy: An evaluation of the control principle. American Journal of Police, 13, 1-20.
4.
Alpert, G. P., & Smith, M. R. (1999). Police use of force data: Where we are and where we should be going. Police Quarterly, 2, 57-78.
5.
Connor, G. (1991, March). Use of force continuum: Phase 2. Law and Order, pp. 30-32.
6.
Desmedt, J. C. (1984). Use of force paradigm for law enforcement. Journal of Criminal Justice, 12, 170-176.
7.
Garner, J. H., Schade, T., Hepburn, J., & Buchanan J. (1995). Measuring the continuum of force used by and against the police. Criminal Justice Review, 20, 146-168.
8.
Geller, W. A., & Toch, H. (1995). An justice for all: Understanding and controlling police abuse of force. Washington, DC: Police Executive Research Forum.
9.
Graham v. Connor, 490 U.S. 386 (1989).
10.
Graves, F., & Connor, G. (1992, February). The FLETC use-of-force model. The Police Chief, pp. 56-57.
11.
Klinger, D. A. (1995). The micro-structure of nonlethal force: Baseline data from and Observational Study. Criminal Justice Review, 20, 169-186.
12.
McLaughlin, V. (1992). Police and the use of force: The Savannah study. New York: Praeger.
13.
National Institute of Justice. (1999). Use of force by police: Overview of national and local data (NCJ 176330). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs.
14.
Parsons, K. (1988). Use of force tactics and non-lethal weaponry. Alert, 3, 1-8.
15.
Pate, A., & Fridell, L. (1993). Police use of force: Official reports, citizen complaints, and legal consequences (Vol. 1). Washington DC: Police Foundation.
16.
Terrill, W. (2001). Police coercion: Application of the force continuum. New York: LFB.
17.
Walker, S., & Alpert, G. (2000). Early warning systems for police: Concept, history and issues. Police Quarterly, 3, 132-152.
