The connection between missing school and Indigenous community: challenges and complexities

Abstract

This commentary elaborates on the issues pertaining to absenteeism among Indigenous children and explores their perceived challenges and complexities. The qualitative study focuses on the Malaysian Semaq Beri Indigenous community, with 1 of the 19 Orang Asli (the Indigenous people of Peninsular Malaysia). Data were collected via semi-structured interviews. The findings indicate that despite various initiatives and incentives by the government to increase access to education, their acceptance of the modern education system is still limited, caused by a complex set of underlying factors: distance to school, lack of transportation assistance, less commitment to modern education, enclave cultural demand, socio-economic disparity, and lack of technology readiness. The study recommends more horizontal and vertical policy-making strategies to inculcate a culture of lifelong learning among the young Indigenous generation. These are seen as preconditions to success through consolidating and sustaining the Indigenous community’s cultural beliefs with current education policies.

Keywords

absenteeism education system Indigenous community Malaysia schooling Semaq Beri

Introduction

Education is essential in preparing the Indigenous people for the modern world. Education can help Indigenous people gain knowledge, skills, and confidence to navigate the modern world while preserving their cultural heritage and identity. Hence, providing better education for the Indigenous community as equal to other communities has become one of many government’s main agendas (Fernández-Llamazares et al., 2020; Simpong et al., 2018). However, as the Indigenous community is unique and has its personality and traits (Simpong et al., 2019), numerous researchers have argued that a fair reflection on pedagogical and curriculum implementation at schools is needed (Abdullah et al., 2016; Othman & Ruslan, 2020; Rabahi et al., 2015).

Although much discussion and awareness study of the impact has taken place, Indigenous people were reported not ready to adapt to the modern world changes, adversely affecting their future well-being. Past research findings have revealed that the Indigenous population is significantly disadvantaged worldwide regarding education opportunities. There are various reasons for such incidents: most of them live in inadequate productive areas (Hanafiah et al., 2023), there is minimal access to education (Taylor, 2010; Wahab & Mustapha, 2015), poor basic infrastructure (Abdullah et al., 2016; Sawalludin et al., 2020), and lack of policymakers understanding towards their socio-cultural lifestyle (David-Chavez et al., 2020; Wotherspoon, 2014).

Absenteeism has been the number one issue among Indigenous community school children. One of the factors behind this phenomenon is that they do not understand the syllabus teachers convey (Wahab et al., 2020). As they have their own capacity for absorbing new information, they face difficulties relating the information taught in the classroom to their living environment. In addition, they need competent teachers who understand their language and culture, which is vital in ensuring their language sustainability (Wahab & Mustapha, 2015). This issue is still pertinent where even current research by Parolin and Lee (2021) reported that the rural minority population is most likely to be absent from school.

Since then, educational issues related to Indigenous communities and how they affect their well-being have become topics of interest among current scholars (Othman & Ruslan, 2020; Simpong et al., 2018). Although providing better education for the Indigenous community has become the government’s primary agenda, some studies have shown that these strategies have failed to improve the Indigenous community’s livelihood (Othman & Ruslan, 2020; Wahab et al., 2020). According to a report by UNICEF (2019), the attendance rate of Indigenous children is lower than the national average, which reflects that there are still significant disparities in education outcomes between Indigenous and non-Indigenous children. Notably, this problem is much more significant during the coronavirus disease (COVID)-19 pandemic.

Researchers have presumed that Indigenous community lifestyles are commonly seen as being literacy impoverished—parents do not value literacy, limited reading materials, did not engage in reading and writing activities—which in return do not support their children’s educational development (Hanafiah et al., 2023; Hossain, 2013; Pandey & Kattel, 2020; Saifullah, 2022; Saifullah et al., 2021). Often a one-to-one relationship is assumed between a community’s socio-cultural factors and their acceptance of modern education policies (Rydland & Grøver, 2021). However, there were considerable differences among low-economic-status Indigenous children in the range of literacy activities they are engaged in. As of today, there is still an unclear understanding of how their socio-cultural traits contribute to the limited intention of Indigenous community children into the mainstream education system. This led to the need to explore the challenges faced by the Indigenous community in embracing the modern education system.

In this commentary, we present a brief assessment of the challenges and then reflect on the implications of findings in the efforts to link Indigenous community cultural traits, way of life, and their acceptance to participate in the mainstream education system. Notably, efforts to bridge the gap between Indigenous cultural beliefs and modern education policies are crucial in ensuring that Indigenous students have access to quality education that respects their cultural heritage and identity. The researchers hope this study will provide a way to close the gap between the Indigenous community’s cultural beliefs and modern education policies.

Literature review

For the Indigenous education system to operate more inclusively towards mainstream curriculum development, it must align with the economic aspiration to bring them out of poverty without neglecting their life values and cultures (David-Chavez et al., 2020; Wotherspoon, 2014). According to Rosnon and Abu Talib (2019), it is vital to hold a continuous educational awareness campaign for the Indigenous community by sharing the importance of education in improving their lifestyle, particularly their children. Besides, the government must ensure accessibility to school problems by providing adequate connectivity between the Indigenous people’s settlements and their nearest schools via roads and bridges (Sawalludin et al., 2020). Such holistic policy and actions are much needed as it would ensure Indigenous children have suitable access and motivation to school and thrive academically.

Ideally, the pedagogy of the Indigenous school propositions consists of a learning involvement that matches their children’s needs and cultural practices (Wahab et al., 2020). Mustapha et al. (2018) suggested bridging the academic subject content with cultural knowledge when strategizing rural school propositions. However, to be successful, it demands the facets of creativity and innovation in teaching and learning policy, aiming to diminish the degree of Indigenous community school withdrawals (David-Chavez et al., 2020; Wotherspoon, 2014). However, in reality, the dropout issue among the Indigenous community is still persistent and disturbing despite all the efforts undertaken.

The Indigenous community has been identified as socioeconomically and culturally poor and marginalized in Peninsular Malaysia (Saifullah, 2022). These Indigenous households are mostly classified as the bottom 40% income group (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2020). Besides their inability to accept a different mindset toward development, their laidback culture has slowed down entrepreneurial success, which all falls back on the willingness to learn and absorb knowledge (David-Chavez et al., 2020; Wahab et al., 2020). Azhari et al. (2019) preliminary findings also discovered the limited command of the Malay language among Indigenous community students and their limited enthusiasm to learn failed the rural school concept. Due to the movement of living and surrounding with other ethnic, there are concerns that it would lead to the assimilation of the original language into the social community area (Ghani & Lah, 2015). Besides, their technological acceptance and usage are still limited (Hanafiah et al., 2023), which in return demotes their ability to compete with the mainstream population.

Although the Indigenous communities have limited opportunities (Mustapha et al., 2018), the modern Indigenous community children’s mindset on education and laidback culture has changed and improved recently. Success stories were reported where certain public schools produced more than 80% attendance among Indigenous students (Johar et al., 2020). This change can be attributed to several factors, including efforts by community leaders, educators, and policymakers to address the educational disparities faced by Indigenous communities. Recognizing the importance of culturally relevant education and including Indigenous knowledge and perspectives in the curriculum have played a crucial role in fostering this change. Besides, the success stories highlight the effectiveness of targeted interventions, culturally sensitive teaching methods, and community involvement in promoting educational aspirations and achievements among Indigenous students. Perhaps, the problem persists due to cultural mismatches between the Indigenous community’s way of life and the mainstream education policy (Renganathan, 2021). Hence, current researchers suggest a combination of formal and informal education as a promising approach for the Indigenous community (Mohamad Shah et al., 2020).

Method

This study focuses on the Semaq Beri Indigenous community, one of the oldest Indigenous populations in Malaysia. The Semaq Beri community is well known for its ability to carve traditional wood. It is classified as an animistic civilization because they believe in and rely on the forest for its survival and spiritual well-being (Zuhairi et al., 2020). It is generally recognized that the Semaq Beri people have a rich cultural and artistic heritage. Their way of life revolves around fishing, hunting, and gathering wild plants for food and medicine. The Semaq Beri people also practice animism, a belief system that ascribes spiritual significance to natural objects and phenomena, including rocks, trees, and animals.

The Semaq Beri was selected as the study setting due to the government’s concern about absenteeism issues. Three core informants within the Semaq Beri community include the Indigenous Head of Village (I1), appointed by the government; the Indigenous community leader, also known as Tok Batin (I2), who was appointed by the community wisdom; and the Department of Indigenous Community Development (JAKOA) representative (I3). According to Creswell and Creswell (2018), a sample size of three to six informants is often sufficient to provide rich, detailed data for analysis in qualitative research. In some cases, a smaller sample size may be appropriate, particularly if the informants are considered information-rich or possess a wealth of knowledge and experience related to the research question (Patton, 2015).

The semi-structured interviews were used to gather data focusing on: (a) the causes of absenteeism among the Semaq Beri children and (b) the efforts made by the government to overcome the absenteeism issues. Triangulation and peer review techniques have been used to ensure the validity and reliability of the information (Creswell & Creswell, 2017). The triangulation method enabled researchers to cross-check the identified themes. Due to the pandemic, the interview was recorded online using the Google Meet platform. This approach enabled the researchers to adhere to physical distancing guidelines and collect data safely while minimizing the risk of transmission.

Findings

The study’s thematic analysis identified issues pertaining to Semaq Beri Indigenous children’s absenteeism attitude, including distance, lack of transportation assistance, commitment to modern education, lack of motivation to study, cultural demand, socio-economic conditions, and unreadiness towards online learning during the pandemic lockdown. All informants acknowledged that support from the school management, policymakers, JAKOA, and government financial assistance is the initiative provided to the Indigenous children to counter their absenteeism issues. Besides, all informants agreed that the government needs to deeply understand the underlying causes of absenteeism and its dynamics specific to Indigenous communities.

Even though the government prepared a specific off-road vehicle for the children’s transportation, absenteeism still happens. I1 advised that one of the main reasons for absenteeism is the distance between the house and the lack of transportation assistance by the government. I2 added that it is important to note that this happens even with the full support from the government to encourage the Indigenous community to the school. I1 and I2 both reported that most complaints related to these government-provided vehicles picking up the students either too early or too late in the afternoon. Perhaps, the vehicle was improperly maintained, as it often broke down.

However, I2 and I3 argued that the issue of absenteeism is more related to their commitment to modern education. As claimed by I3, their absenteeism is due to an unsupportive surrounding schooling environment and the government’s aspiration to integrate the mainstream Malaysian culture into the children. According to I2, most parents felt limited pride and belonging as the school did not include the Orang Asli culture in its curriculum and activities. Besides, as the Indigenous community has a high sense of community, most Orang Asli children attending school experience the sense of being different. I3 informed that if any of their friends are not interested in attending class, this will influence others not to follow.

However, the different challenges highlighted by informants are a need for more motivation to study and cultural demands. I2 argued that the parents were not involved in their children’s schooling activities. Most of the absenteeism issues recur as their parenting style gives greater autonomy to children as decision-makers, allowing them to decide whether to go or not to school. Meanwhile, I3 further elaborated that socio-economic factor is also a reason for them not coming to school. According to I1, some of their peers avoided coming to school because of financial constraints among their families. Despite JAKOA assistance, Orang Asli parents still have to bear the daily allowances. Hence, most of them drop out of school so that they can work to support their families.

Besides, the COVID-19 pandemic caused challenges to Indigenous community students, especially with the introduction of online distance learning. I1 elaborated that lack of internet access and other educational tools like notebooks and smartphones are pertinent challenges facing Indigenous community students. I2 shared that it is also hard for them to understand their lessons through the online medium, leaving them frustrated and demotivated. Communication medium such as WhatsApp group also plays an essential tool in communicating with the teachers—if they possess a smartphone. However, for I1, it creates additional challenges as most have had to rely on using their parents’ handphones to attend online classes. This causes multiple children attending school issues as they have to take turns. I3 added that mobile internet coverage was usually inadequate, which caused extra expenses for buying internet passes for schooling. As a result, some students have to walk quite far from the housing areas to find a spot with adequate mobile internet connectivity to study online.

Specific initiatives have been developed to overcome absenteeism among Indigenous community students. I1 noted that there is continuous support from the school management. First, the school aims to enhance their basic learning abilities: writing, reading, and calculating. I3 saw that the teachers used online modules and conventional revision books to overcome the pandemic challenges to teach the students. In addition, to encourage the Indigenous community students to learn, they went to the student’s houses to collect or distribute any assignments. In line with the school efforts, I1 and I2 agreed that educators are highly committed to teaching despite facing challenges during the pandemic. However, I1 observed that even after undergoing the mainstream education system, their ability to read, calculate, and write is still low, especially during the pandemic.

Discussion

The Malaysian government is responsible for the development and welfare of the Indigenous community, providing various programmes and projects to improve the living standards of the Orang Asli community, mostly through JAKOA (Rosnon & Abu Talib, 2019). The initiative includes providing education and training to the Orang Asli community, which includes primary and secondary education, vocational training, and adult education. However, the Orang Asli have a long history of absenteeism in the formal education system, which is much worse than before compared to now. To address the absenteeism issues, the government has implemented various initiatives such as providing transportation to and from schools, building schools in remote areas, providing scholarships and incentives, and increasing awareness about the importance of education to the Orang Asli communities (Mohamad Shah et al., 2020).

The Malaysian government has also continually been criticized for not adequately addressing the root causes of absenteeism, such as poverty and discrimination (Caballero-Anthony & Emmers, 2022). Even though various initiatives address Indigenous children’s absenteeism, it is unclear whether their initiatives have successfully reduced absenteeism among Indigenous children. Overall, it is difficult to say whether the Malaysian government’s efforts have succeeded or failed in reducing Indigenous children’s absenteeism, as these initiatives lack comprehensive data and evaluation. Nonetheless, it is clear that more efforts are needed to address this issue and ensure that all children, regardless of their background, have equal access to education.

Scholars universally understand the importance of suiting the modern education system that relates to the Indigenous community’s way of life (Azhari et al., 2019; David-Chavez et al., 2020; Mustapha et al., 2018). However, it is difficult to make a general statement about the views of the entire Malaysian Indigenous community on the modern education system. Some community members may support it, while others may have concerns or criticisms. It may depend on the specific community and their individual experiences with the education system. School administrators must be aware that mainstream educational practices and approaches may not suit the general Indigenous children. They need to understand that Indigenous children’s absenteeism issues require a deep understanding and respect for the cultural backgrounds and experiences of the Indigenous communities involved.

The Indigenous children’s absenteeism issues still exist due to a number of factors, including poverty, lack of transportation, cultural barriers, and lack of engagement with the education system. Many Indigenous families live in remote areas, making it difficult for children to attend school regularly. In addition, they may not feel welcomed or supported in mainstream schools, leading to a lack of motivation to attend and participate in learning activities. Furthermore, these children may not see the relevance of their education to their culture and community, leading to a lack of engagement with the education system. Besides, the lack of funding and resources for Indigenous-specific education also plays a role; schools in their communities do not have the same resources and support as schools in urban and sub-urban communities. Such findings reveal power imbalances between the Indigenous communities and the mainstream education system, which may impact the attendance of Indigenous children. Besides, it seems there exist systemic issues within the current education system, such as discrimination and lack of resources, that are contributing to the problem of absenteeism among Indigenous children.

The current education system has been blamed for focusing on how Indigenous children can fit into the mainstream education system rather than exploring how the present education system can accommodate their lifestyle and cultural needs. As a result, the current effort seems insufficient as their absenteeism behaviour is still critical. Although the distance to school and socio-economic are part of the issues, the problem is much related to their enclave culture, contributing to their unwillingness to embrace modern education. Perhaps, the modern education system needs to consider the cultural differences within their pedagogical approach that emphasizes learning with children, parents, and community members and celebrates differences. In addition, the government should encourage the informing policy of their numerous programme development to address absenteeism among Indigenous children and improve their access to education. Besides, they may strengthen their collaboration with Indigenous communities and local organizations to ensure their educational policy is culturally sensitive and addresses the specific needs and concerns of the Indigenous communities.

Conclusion

This study’s findings highlight why it is pertinent for governments to understand the pulling and pushing factors that encourage or discourage Indigenous children from attending school. Notably, a concerted effort is needed to ensure the success of the Indigenous community’s education agenda, especially during the pandemic. The local government is urged to prioritize motivational and real-life exposure to how education benefits the Indigenous community’s sustainability and quality of life. Besides, the new generation of the Indigenous community needs to be exposed to educational activities concerning their cultural beliefs. Their participation in higher education may enhance the Indigenous community children’s interest in obtaining a quality education and contributing to their community and nation.

Policy-making, especially within the scope of unique circumstances, should no longer be a purely federal or even a federal–provincial concern but instead involves participation by actors from multiple levels. Besides, more horizontal and vertical policy-making strategies are needed to inculcate lifelong learning culture among the young Indigenous generation. Horizontal policy-making involves collaboration and coordination across different sectors and stakeholders to develop holistic approaches to education. In the context of fostering a lifelong learning culture among the young Indigenous generation, horizontal policy-making can include better intersectoral collaboration, community engagement, and resource allocation. However, vertical policy-making focuses on establishing overarching policies and frameworks at national or regional levels to guide education systems. This includes developing Legislative Frameworks, inclusive curriculum design, and embedding culturally sensitive teaching methodologies. Notably, the decision-making process should be collaborative, non-hierarchical, and perhaps consensual. These are considered preconditions to success through consolidating and sustaining the Indigenous community’s cultural beliefs in modern education policies.

The limitations of this study should, however, be acknowledged. First, the response to the problem of absenteeism among Indigenous children may be attributed to stereotypes or generalizations about their communities rather than recognizing the issues causing absenteeism. This study has taken steps to avoid such stereotyping. However, future studies could focus on the community’s perspectives and experiences while seeking out diverse sources of information from pertinent stakeholders, which may lead to the ability to generalize the study findings. However, this study’s most significant methodological limitations came from a small sample size and convenience sampling. Furthermore, the sample may not represent the whole Semaq Beri population’s perspectives because it is somewhat selective.

Even if it is insufficient to fulfil the saturation point, the study’s in-depth exploration provides input on the gap in the current study subject and setting. Perhaps, future in-depth research should include more samples such as current students, ex-students, and parents to understand the holistic perspectives of absenteeism among other Indigenous communities in other under-investigated areas in Malaysia.

Footnotes

Authors’ note

Norol Hamiza Zamzuri (PhD) is a senior lecturer at the Faculty of Business Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM). She holds a PhD in Management from Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia, in 2016. Her research area is on Indigenous community, cultural events, event sustainability, and other related cultural and event management areas.

Mohd Hafiz Hanafiah (PhD) is a Professor at the Faculty of Hotel and Tourism Management, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia. He completed his PhD in Hotel and Tourism Management from UiTM in 2016 and Master in Economics from Universiti Malaya in 2008. He is an active author in tourism management and behavioural economics.

Tengku Intan Suzila (PhD) is a senior lecturer in applied linguistics, specifically in the Malaysian Orang Asli (Indigenous) languages. With more than 20 years of teaching experience at Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), she has produced countless research papers on education and teaching tools. Her research passion lies in the areas involving the Indigenous people and education.

Norzanah Mat Nor (PhD) is a senior lecturer with an expertise in human resource management. She is currently attached at the Arshad Ayub Graduate Business School, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Selangor, Malaysia.

Herwina Rosnan (PhD) is a senior lecturer and an international business and management expert. She is currently attached at the Arshad Ayub Graduate Business School, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Selangor, Malaysia

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and publication of this article.

Funding

The authors disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and publication of this article: Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM) (600-IRMI/FRGS 5/3 (437/2019).

ORCID iD

Mohd Hafiz Hanafiah

Glossary

Orang Asli the Indigenous people of Peninsular Malaysia

Semaq Beri an Indigenous community that lives in the interior Pahang State, Peninsular of Malaysia

References

Abdullah

Sayuti

N. M.

Arshad

A. A. M.

Embong

M. R

. (2016). Living conditions in Orang Asli Resettlement Project (PROSDET) of Pantos, Pahang, Malaysia. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 222, 143–150. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.05.204

Azhari

N. N.

Manaf

R. A.

S. W.

Bajunid

S. F. B. S. A.

Gobil

A. R. M.

Saad

W. Z.

Nordin

S. A

. (2019). Gamification, a successful method to foster leptospirosis knowledge among university students: A pilot study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 16(12), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16122108

Caballero-Anthony

Emmers

. (2022). Keeping the peace in Southeast Asia: ASEAN and the quest for positive peace. The Pacific Review, 35(6), 1079–1104.

Creswell

J. W.

Creswell

J. D

. (2017). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. SAGE.

Creswell

J. W.

Creswell

J. D

. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods approaches. SAGE.

David-Chavez

D. M.

Valdez

Estevez

J. B.

Meléndez Martínez

Garcia

A. A.

Josephs

Troncoso

. (2020). Community-based (rooted) research for regeneration: Understanding benefits, barriers, and resources for Indigenous education and research. Alternative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples, 16(3), 220–232. https://doi.org/10.1177/1177180120952896

Department of Statistics Malaysia. (2020). Household Income & Basic Amenities Survey Report 2019. https://www.dosm.gov.my/v1/index.php?r=column/cone&menu_id=WEVhckxEZ1R1NENwR01qMVplWXp1UT09#

Fernández-Llamazares

Á.

Garteizgogeascoa

Basu

Brondizio

E. S.

Cabeza

Martínez-Alier

McElwee

Reyes-García

. (2020). A state-of-the-art review of Indigenous peoples and environmental pollution. Integrated Environmental Assessment and Management, 16(3), 324–341. https://doi.org/10.1002/ieam.4239

Ghani

A. A.

Lah

S. C

. (2015). The Semang Kensiu Orang Asli of Lubuk Legong, Baling: Their language and cultural endangerment. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 208, 213–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.177

10.

Hanafiah

M. H.

Zamzuri

N. H.

Sharif

T. I. S. T.

Chartrungruang

B. -O

. (2023). Reframing Indigenous tourism entrepreneurial personality, experience, sense of community and challenges in community-based tourism-related business. Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy, Advance online publication, 0(0). https://doi.org/10.1108/JEC-09-2022-0131

11.

Hossain

D. M

. (2013). Socio-economic situation of the Indigenous people in the Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT) of Bangladesh. Middle East Journal of Business, 8(2), 22–30.

12.

Johar

S. S.

Ramli

H. H.

Abdullah

M. A.

Ani

Bakar

Suhaimy

K. A. M.

Othman

. (2020). Education transformation of Indigenous peoples in Johor, Malaysia. Social Sciences, 9(1), 25–31.

13.

Mustapha

Mamat

Yunus

Said

. (2018). Early exploration of Forest School framework for Malaysian Indigenous people: The application of Fuzzy Delphi Technique. International Journal of Multidisciplinary and Current Research, 6(12), 1404–1409.

14.

Mohamad Shah

D. S.

Mohd Adnan

A. H.

Mohd Salim

M. S. A.

Yusof

A. M.

Mohd Tahir

M. H

. (2020). The non-formal education of Orang Asli adolescents In Malaysia: From community to university. Journal of Humanities Technology and Civilization, 1(8), 1–13.

15.

Othman

Ruslan

. (2020). Intercultural communication experiences among students and teachers: Implication to in-service teacher professional development. Journal for Multicultural Education, 14(3–4), 223–238.

16.

Pandey

O. R.

Kattel

R. R

. (2020). Education status and factors affecting effective education among Indigenous Tharu community in Nepal. Global Scientific Journal, 8(4), 67–88.

17.

Parolin

Lee

E. K

. (2021). Large socio-economic, geographic and demographic disparities exist in exposure to school closures. Nature Human Behaviour, 5(4), 522–528.

18.

Patton

M. Q

. (2015). Qualitative research and evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice. SAGE.

19.

Rabahi

Yusof

Awang

. (2015). Leading learning: A grounded theory perspective of Orang Asli parental involvement and engagement. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 211, 94–103. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.015

20.

Renganathan

. (2021). Research concerning the Indigenous Orang Asli and education: A review of problem representations. Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education, 16(3), 200–211.

21.

Rosnon

M. R.

Abu Talib

. (2019). Indigenous education rights: The Malaysian case. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 9(10), 23–44.

22.

Rydland

Grøver

. (2021). Language use, home literacy environment, and demography: Predicting vocabulary skills among diverse young dual language learners in Norway. Journal of Child Language, 48(4), 717–736.

23.

Saifullah

M. K

. (2022). Well-being index of Indigenous people of Peninsular Malaysia: An application of the multidimensional poverty index (MPI). Alternative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples, 18(3), 424–435.

24.

Saifullah

M. K.

Masud

M. M.

Kari

F. B

. (2021). Vulnerability context and well-being factors of Indigenous community development: A study of Peninsular Malaysia. Alternative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples, 17(1), 94–105. https://journals-sagepub-com-s.web.bisu.edu.cn/doi/10.1177/11771801221117183

25.

Sawalludin

A. F.

Min

C. L. J.

Ishar

M. I. M

. (2020). The struggle of Orang Asli in education: Quality of education. Malaysian Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities (MJSSH), 5(1), 46–51.

26.

Simpong

D. B.

Zahari

M. S. M.

Hanafiah

M. H.

Ahmad

. (2018). Indigenous entrepreneurs and tourism industry related businesses: Assessing the socio-cultural influence. South Asian Journal of Tourism and Heritage, 11(1), 52–68.

27.

Simpong

D. B.

Zahari

M. S. M.

Hanafiah

M. H.

Ahmad

. (2019). Indigenous peoples and tourism business opportunity: The influence of Orang Asli’s personality traits and sense of community. International Journal of Tourism Anthropology, 7(3–4), 268–283.

28.

Taylor

. (2010). Here and now: The attendance issue in Indigenous early childhood education. Journal of Education Policy, 25(5), 677–699.

29.

UNICEF. (2019). Out-of-school children: The Sabah context. https://www.unicef.org/malaysia/reports/

30.

Wahab

N. A.

Goh

P. S. C.

Ong

E. T.

Ibrahim

M. H.

Affandi

H. M

. (2020). Construction of the Forest School framework based on Indigenous knowledge in Malaysia. Cakrawala Pendidikan, 39(2), 269–278. https://doi.org/10.21831/cp.v39i2.29316

31.

Wahab

N. A.

Mustapha

. (2015). Reflections on pedagogical and curriculum implementation at Orang Asli schools in Pahang. Procedia—Social and Behavioral Sciences, 172, 442–448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.376

32.

Wotherspoon

. (2014). Seeking reform of Indigenous education in Canada: Democratic progress or democratic colonialism? Alternative: An International Journal of Indigenous Peoples, 10(4), 323–339. https://doi.org/10.1177/1177180114010004

33.

Zuhairi

M. H.

Rosnon

M. R

Shaari

(2020). A systematic review on the Mah Meri people in Malaysia. International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social Sciences, 10(16), 73–95.