The Solid Waste Management and Determinant Factors in Asella,Ethiopia: Generation Rates,Disposal Practices,and Public Perceptions

Abstract

Implementing technical systems can help reduce the ever-increasing quantity of municipal solid waste. The main objective of this study was to determine current solid waste management practices and determining factors in Asella, Ethiopia. A cross-sectional study design was applied to 418 houses. Random and systematic sampling techniques for data collection were used, along with organized questionnaires and checklists. Data were entered into EpiData 4.6 and exported to SAS 17. Binary logistic regression was the test statistic for the determination of the AOR solid waste components. The rate of solid waste generation was significant, at 0.71 kg per person per day. The health exposure assessment of health indicator problems was also high, 94.78%. The percentages of trash waste, food waste, and paper waste were 29%, 25%, and 19%, respectively. Open-field disposal accounted for 20.3% of the solid waste disposal methods, followed by surface dumping (21.1%), open burning (32.5%), composting (13.4%), and other systems (12.7%). Municipal offices handled 69.6% of the solid waste collection service, the private sector (22%), and individual partners (8.4%). 59.8% of the people were dissatisfied with municipal solid waste collection services. Trash (AOR 3.93, CI 2.87-5.39), plastic (AOR 3.81, CI 1.83-7.90), paper (AOR 4.62, CI 3.39-6.28), food (AOR 1.23, CI 1.11-1.89), and others (AOR 4.95, CI 2.45-9.85) were associated factors with solid waste management practice in Asella, Ethiopia. In conclusion, a paradigm shift to energy and material transformation will be economically and technically feasible remedial measures for solid waste management problems in Asella, Ethiopia.

Keywords

solid waste management composting incineration pyrolysis gasification recovery

Introduction

Global Trends

By 2050, worldwide, the quantity of MSW is expected to increase by 70%, reaching 3.40 billion tons with an individual production rate of 1.42 kg per capita per day.¹ In the European Union (EU), the generation rate increased from 0.3 to 1.4 kg per capita per day, while in African cities, the average is 0.78 kg per capita per day.²

In developing countries, of the total produced municipal solid waste, household solid waste accounted for 59% to 80%.² In low-income countries, 93% of the solid waste generated is removed by open-field disposal, which is considered a challenge for the administration of solid waste management.³ This strategy creates several sustainability issues, such as environmental pollution and public health problems, which were responsible for the spread of contagious illnesses.²

Solid Waste Management Problems

The primary principle of solid waste management is the prevention and/or reduction of solid waste at production sites.⁴ Recycling is the choice of waste management principle that is more expensive than landfilling.⁵

The open dumping of solid waste into water sources had detrimental impacts on the environment and society, including increased rates of child mortality and the spread of diseases that are harmful to public health.⁶

When solid waste is burned, many toxic substances are released into the atmosphere, which causes air pollution and harms human health. It can also be a cause of global warming that might result from a dusting of impurity gases.^6,7

The decomposition of food waste by microbes is reported to produce 19% to 33% methane gas alongside other gases, such as carbon dioxide, hydrofluorocarbons, and nitrous oxide. These are the main sources of global warming, which result in the alteration of climatically changing environments.⁸

Every year, the urban population and energy consumption increase by 1.5% and 1.1%, respectively.⁹ Organic solid waste was the alternative source of energy through an anaerobic decomposition process that produces biogas of burnable gases, methane, and hydrogen gases.¹⁰

The sustainability measures that can be achieved using waste-to-energy transformation enable waste management, energy production, and the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions to all be resolved simultaneously.¹¹

Applying energy and material processing techniques mitigates health-related and environmental issues as a dual benefit, including energy supply.² Biogas production from solid wastes via anaerobic bacterial decomposition was a source of energy.¹² The dominance of organic solid waste production in developing countries means that biogas processing provides additional sources of energy from solid waste.¹³

Municipal administrators cannot cope with the ever-increasing generation of urban solid waste. In Ethiopia, 42.5% of the daily solid waste produced by households was eliminated through roadside and open-field disposal methods.^14,15

Research Gab

The municipal solid waste disposal methods were a sensitive issue concerning environmental pollution and public health problems in Ethiopia,¹⁴ similar to Asella. The previous study assesses the status and impacts of solid waste problems, but did not address the status of public satisfaction, which was taken as the research gap in the current investigation in Asella, Ethiopia.

The main objective of this study was to determine current solid waste management practices and determining factors with a consideration of public satisfaction in Asella, Ethiopia.

Methods and Materials

Study Area

Asella is located 175 km from Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia. It is the administrative town of the Arsi zone and is in the central region of Oromia, Ethiopia. The Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite location of Asella town has a latitude, longitude, and altitude of 7°57′41″N, 39°8′29″′E, and 2418 m, respectively. According to Ref.¹⁶ the total number of people living in Asella was 68 269. According to these data, 33 826 (49.5%) were men, and 34 443 (50.5%) were women. The site of Asella is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Map of Asella town, Arsi zone, Oromia regional state, Ethiopia, 2025.

Study Design and Period

A community-based cross-sectional study design was used during the house-to-house data collection process. The study period was from January 2024 to December 2025. Then, the characterization of solid wastes was performed by the data collector and supervisory teams, first by family members sorting into respective solid waste compositions. The solid waste compositions were trash, food waste, paper, plastics, e-waste, metal pieces, and other miscellaneous waste.

Source of the Populations

The source of the population was all residential houses existing in Asella town, whereas the study populations were randomly selected from domestic houses during the data collection process. The exclusion criterion was a housing respondent who was critically ill and unable to respond to the data collector.

Sample Size Calculation

The single-population proportion sample procedure was used to calculate appropriate sample sizes for this research project. The maximum sample size was determined using 50% of the proportion for calculating the representative sample size, which was calculated as follows using the Cochran formula:

\begin{matrix} n_o = (z_2^\propto) \times (z_2^\propto) \times p \times (1 - p) / d^2 \\ no = (1.96) \times (1.96) \times 0.5 \times (1 - 0.5) / [0.05]^2 = 384 \end{matrix}

(1)

where “p” represents proportion, and its value is .5; d represents the level of its precision, and its value is .05; and z = 1.96².

The final sample size was 422 households after adding 10% for the non-response rate.

Sampling Techniques

A simple random and systematic sampling technique was employed during the data collection process in the study area of Asella, Ethiopia. The data collectors were related professionals currently working in town government offices. The primary data were collected through face-to-face interviews via questionnaires and checklists. Initially, the family members of the sample houses were instructed to collect and store their daily generated solid waste in home storage containers. The weight measurements were performed using a calibrated mass balance by data collectors from the sampled houses. The age of the household respondents was above 18 years, and lived for the last 6 months before the data collection period. The per capita solid waste generation rate was determined after obtaining the total household weight of solid waste divided by the number of household family members per day.

Sampling Procedure

Asella town was built with 8 kebeles, which are the smallest district units of administration. Throughout the town, 15 811 residential homes were categorized as private, government, or rented. The researchers, data collectors, and supervisors surveyed the team to determine the selection of sample households. The researcher proportionally distributed the number of sample houses among the total number of homes distributed in each kebele. The proportion of houses was determined by dividing the district kebele’s total number of houses (n) by the total number of houses found in Asella town (N). Finally, the determined proportion is multiplied by the sample size, that is, 422, to obtain the representative number of houses used for the sample size of the data collection process.

As an example, to calculate the number of houses, Ancho kebele = 422 × 0.135 = 57.1 = 57. Using similar steps for the other kebeles, the calculated houses used as samples were 66 Burkitu, 47 Buseta, 60 Chilallo, 39 Combocha, 41 Halila, 68 Hundegudina, and 44 Wolkesa. A total of 422 houses were in the final sample for this research project (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Flow chart of proportional distribution of selected houses for data collection in Asella town, Ethiopia, 2024.

It is also important to note that, in the flowchart, each box contains the name of the kebele, their total number of homes, and those selected homes with the lowest number for data collection.

The first data collection household was determined by the lottery method. Then, the process continued with a simple random and systematic adjustment of the houses with the direction of the road next to each house.

The kth interval was calculated as n/N_i, where “n” was the sample size and “N_i” was the total number of houses in each kebele of Asella. The kth value varies among Asella kebeles because of the planning techniques.

Data Collection Instruments

The researcher prepared questionnaires and checklists for the data collection tools that were used by the data collectors to collect necessary information from the targeted households in Asella. A 5 kg mass balance was used for the weight measurement of solid waste. The questionnaires had subsections as follows: sociodemographic assessment parts, solid waste categories (type of solid waste lists), solid waste management parts (sorting, storage, reusing, recycling, and recovery as materials and energy consumption), health risk assessment parts, environmental pollution assessment parts, knowledge assessment parts, law assessment parts, and public satisfaction assessment parts. There was a total of 32 questions were collected from each household on the handover community survey for assessing solid waste management practices in Asella, Ethiopia.

Study Variable

Dependent Variable

Solid waste compositions.

Independent Variable

Type of solid waste, sorting of solid waste, sociodemographic data (age, education, income, family size, etc.), solid waste management practice, solid waste collections, and disposal practice.

Operational Definition

Municipal solid waste (MSW) is defined as useless/unwanted substances generated by residential houses, commercial establishments, and institutions in towns and cities.¹⁷

Solid waste management is characterized by a set of intervention-based activities that include the generation, sorting, collection, transportation, treatment, and disposal of solid waste.⁴

Trash is unwanted non-hazardous solid waste such as packaging materials, discarded tires, tree leaves, broken household equipment, grass clippings, mixed unwanted substances, and home-produced solid waste.¹⁸

“Food waste” refers to contaminated food items, including rotten vegetables, fruits, meat, dairy products, leftover food, and food scraps such as onion peels, potato peels, etc.¹⁹

Thermal treatment of solid waste refers to energy extraction in the form of heat.⁷

Likert scale for the cut-off point of satisfaction status of the solid waste collection service:

Very good when the public solid waste collection service was gained twice per week

A good public solid waste collection service reaches once per month

Satisfactory public solid waste collection service twice per month

The public solid waste collection service was once every 3 weeks

A bad public solid waste collection service was carried out once per month

Data Quality Assurance

The data quality was assured by providing training for the data collectors’ field supervisors by the principal investigator. Field visits and site mapping were performed by the supervisors and data collectors under the supervision of the researcher in the study of kebeles. The solid waste sorting process has been repeatedly performed by households, data collectors, and supervisory teams at each site of individual households. During the community survey, 24 data collectors were involved in the data collection process. Among them, 14 were females, and 8 were men. All of them were involved in the data collection and organization process.

Ethics Declarations

Ethical approval was obtained from the Jimma University Research Directorate Office. Data collection was performed after the distribution of cooperative letters at the study site administration of kebele offices and after obtaining field site oral consent from the respondent members of households.

Data Processing and Analysis

The statistical software was EpiData 4.6, used for data entry and exported to SAS 17 for the analysis of different results of solid waste management practices. Binary logistic regression. Cronbach’s alpha was calculated to identify the reliability analysis of validating data for internal consistency among study variables.

Results

The Asella townhome’s solid waste management was surveyed with a response rate of 98.8%. The leading educational respondent group was the secondary cycle (Table 1). The mean age of the respondents was 39 years, and the average family size was 4 people per household. The mean solid waste generation rate in Asella was 0.71 kg/person/day. The mean income of a household was USD 15. 8. Cronbach’s alpha was .88 in the reliability analysis tests. The response to the health exposure assessment result of health indicators of solid waste management problems was 396 (94.74%).

Table 1.

Sociodemographic Data for the Survey of Solid Management Practice in Asella Town, 2024/2025.

S/N	Educational status	Number	Response (%)
1.	Can’t read & write	58	13.88
2.	Others	34	8.13
3.	Primary cycle	92	22.01
4.	Secondary cycle	122	29.19
5.	Tertiary cycle	112	26.79
6.	Total	418	100.00
	Age range	Number	Response (%)
1.	0-14	7	1.67
2.	15-49	333	79.67
3.	⩾50	78	18.66
4.	Total	418	100.00

Solid Waste Characterization

The result percent proportions of solid waste characterization of trash, food, and paper were 29%, 25%, and 19%, respectively. Therefore, the respective components of solid waste were trash, followed by food, paper, plastics, other waste, e-waste, and metal pieces (Figure 3).

Figure 3.

Mean interval plots on the characterization of urban solid waste generated by households in Asella Town, Ethiopia, 2024/2025.

Solid Waste Collection

The results of the community survey on solid waste collection service were 291 (69.6%) municipal administrations, 92 (22%) private sectors, and 35 (8.4%) individual partners. The collection activity was formally handled by the municipality authority assigned to MSE (micro and small enterprise), but informally handled by private and individual partners. All collectors finally discard solid waste in open fields without applying scientific solid waste management. Management treatment systems. The community survey results on the frequency of municipal solid waste collection turnover were 154 (68.8%) per month and 33 (7.9%) per week.

The magnitude of reusing solid waste was 47.1%. The types of solid waste reused were 74 (37.5%) plastics (ie, Festal and Highland containers), 61 (31%) paper, 41 (21.8%) glass and bottles, and 19 (9.8%) decomposable waste.

Solid Waste Disposal Methods

A total of 13.6% of respondents used composting as a solid waste disposal system (Table 1; Figure 4). Urban inhabitants use organic solid wastes for compost preparation in their homes. “Other methods of solid waste disposal” refer to roadside disposal, disposing of water-eroded land channels, animal feeding, disposal by mentally retarded persons, carrying street boys with minimum payment, and unauthorized disposal mechanisms.

Figure 4.

The solid waste disposal methods applied in Asella town, Ethiopia, 2024/2025.

The crosstab result showed that the practice of composting was a medium-income group compared to other income groups (Table 1; Figure 4).

The results of solid waste disposal methods were a maximum of 32.30% open burning and a minimum of 12.68% other unauthorized elimination methods, both implemented by first-income-range homeowners representing low financial sources (Table 2; Figure 3).

Table 2.

Cross-Tabulation of the Relationships Between Solid Waste Management and Monthly Income Differences, 2024/2025.

S/N	Solid waste management practice	Income range (%)			Total
S/N	Solid waste management practice	5-10USD	10-25 USD	⩾25USD	Total
1.	Composting	10.05%	2.15%	1.20%	13.40%
2.	Dumping	16.03%	4.31%	0.96%	21.30%
3.	Open burning	27.51%	3.35%	1.44%	32.30%
4.	Open field	14.35%	3.35%	2.63%	20.33%
5.	Others	9.33%	1.91%	1.44%	12.68%
6.	Total	77.27%	15.07%	7.67%	100.00%

The public dissatisfaction rate of solid waste collection services in Asella, Ethiopia, was 59.8%. The percentage of public ratings of solid waste management systems was less than 50%, indicating the level of sanitation status of urban solid waste management systems (Table 3).

Table 3.

Public satisfaction status of municipal solid waste collection services in Asella, Ethiopia, 2024/2025.

S/N	Public solid waste collection service access	Satisfaction rate	Numbers	Percent (%)
1.	Once per month	Bad	71	16.99%
2.	Once per week	Good	87	20.81%
3.	Once every 3 wk	Poor	147	35.17%
4.	Twice per month	Satisfactory	90	21.53%
5.	Twice per week	Very good	23	5.50%
6.	Total		418	100.00%

Determinant Factors for the Solid Waste Management Practice

A binary logistic regression of solid waste composition. AOR with confidence intervals was intended for maximum precision association results (95% confidence intervals). The associated factors were trash (AOR 3.93, CI 2.87-5.39), plastic (AOR 3.81, CI 1.83-7.90), paper (AOR 4.62, CI 3.39-6.28), food (AOR 1.23, CI 1.11-1.89), and others (AOR 4.95, CI 2.45-9.85; Table 4).

Table 4.

Odds Ratios for Categorical Predictors of Solid Waste Compositions, Asella, Ethiopia, 2024/2025.

Level A	Level B	AOR	95% CI
Solid waste compositions		AOR	95% CI
Food	E-waste	0.67	(0.33, 1.38)
Food	Others	0.59	(0.35, 0.96)
Metal	E-waste	1.09	(0.68, 1.77)
Other	E-waste	2.71	(1.78, 4.13)
Paper	E-waste	1.34	(0.66, 2.72)
Plastic	E-waste	3.84	(1.79, 8.29)
Food	Plastics	1.23	(1.11, 1.89)
Metal	Food	0.04	(0.03, 0.06)
Other	Food	0.10	(0.07, 0.14)
Paper	Food	0.47	(0.35, 0.63)
Plastic	Food	0.30	(0.23, 0.40)
Trash	Food	1.85	(1.34, 2.57)
Other	Metal	4.94	(2.48, 9.85)
Paper	Metal	1.56	(0.78, 3.110)
Plastic	Metal	3.81	(1.83, 7.90)
Trash	Metal	0.11	(0.05, 0.22)
Paper	Other	4.62	(3.39, 6.28)
Plastic	Other	2.94	(2.16, 4.00)
Trash	Other	0.36	(0.21, 0.62)
Plastic	Paper	0.64	(0.48, 0.84)
Trash	Paper	3.93	(2.87, 5.39)
Trash	Plastic	0.94	(0.57, 1.55)

Discussion

Asella, a town of the Arsi zone, was found in the southeastern central parts of Ethiopia (Figure 1) with subdistricts of 8 kebele administrations (Figure 2). The per capita solid waste generation rate in Asella (0.71 kg/person/day) was greater than in Dilla town (0.48 kg/capita/day).¹⁴ The variation might be because of the difference in people’s material consumption and geographical location in the 2 towns of Ethiopia.

The solid waste characterization in Asella town was trash, food, paper, plastic, other miscellaneous waste, e-waste, and metal pieces (Figure 3). The characterization of solid waste was also carried out in Debre Berhane city, resulting in 33% food waste, 20% paper waste, and 13% plastic waste.²⁰ A supportive study carried out in the Akaki sub-city of ADDIS ABABA, Ethiopia, found 52.84% food waste, 10.33% trash waste, 9.61% plastic waste, and 4.99% paper waste.²¹ The current result was higher than that of Debre Berhane and Akaki cities. Even though the type of solid waste generated in Asella town was organic and inorganic, the first category was the leading type of produced materials. A similar study in Dilla, Ethiopia, was performed on municipal solid waste characterization to determine the status of urban solid waste management practices and support the current findings in Asella, Ethiopia.¹⁴

The solid waste category of plastic (15%) and paper waste (19%) in Asella town was greater than in Dilla town, with the specific magnitude of plastic at 7% and paper at 3% in the second town.¹⁴ The municipal solid waste administration office and micro-and small entrepreneurs must manage increasing urban solid waste production to reduce environmental pollution and negative health effects.

The solid waste collection service was touched on in Asella town by the municipal administration, the private sector, and individual partners. The uncollected solid waste in Addis Ababa was 20% to 30%, but the remaining 70% was collected,²² which was compatible with the collection service in Asella town. Thus, it was unlikely that newly generated solid waste would be removed within a short period of elimination.

The health exposure assessment of the health indicator, the solid waste management problem, was 94.78%. This finding was extremely high because of the poor management of home-produced solid waste. A previous study investigated that solid waste contributes to the development of serious sanitation problems, which account for environmental pollution and health risks. The production of offensive odors and the attraction of insects and other disease-vector animals were indications of solid waste accumulation problems.² This might be one of the main reasons why the public dissatisfaction rate of solid waste management was high in Asella (Table 2).

Similarly, the basic solid waste management practice in Asella town was reusing and recycling solid waste. Reusing involves the repeated use of material or substances by property owners, by extracting those items from discarded solid waste. It can save materials, be an income source for service providers, and reduce environmental pollution and public health problems due to the bulky deposition of solid waste. The practice of reusing solid waste was implemented with a minimum quantity in Debre Markos, Ethiopia, and 17.4% in Fiche town.²³ The current solid waste reusing practice in Asella was 47.1%, which was remarkably high compared to the 2 stated towns. This might be because of increasing awareness levels about the retrieval of materials from dumped solid waste, especially for informal waste collectors such as waste pickers, used as sources of income and job opportunities, especially in Asella, Ethiopia.

Even though better awareness creation was created by health professionals for the urban community in Asella town, the facts on the ground showed that the status of the reuse practice was below 50%. Thus, recycling was not highly implemented in Asella, a town.

The solid waste disposal methods in Asella town were open burning, throwing to open fields, dumping to water bodies, composting, and other methods (Table 1; Figure 4). In a similar study in the town of Shashemene, Ethiopia, solid waste was thrown into an open field that accommodates 60% and 40% discarded sideways streets, flood drains, and riverbanks.²⁴ Similar waste-handling practices were also confirmed by solid waste that was illegally thrown into open spaces near streets in Hawassa town.²⁵

A study indicated that the disposal methods of MSW were 70% sanitary landfills, 19% recycled, and a net of 11% used for the generation of energy,⁹ but the current findings in Asella revealed that no single proportion of solid waste went into the energy-extracting process.

Solid waste management by composting was practiced in Asella town (Table 2, Figure 4). A previous study in Jimma revealed that 50% of compost can be used for maize production.²⁶ This finding was lower than that of Jimma town.

The commonly applied combustion of dry solid waste in Asella Town was open burning (Table 2; Figure 4). This might increase the burden of greenhouse gas emissions and further the effects of global warming.⁶ There is no thermal and biochemical solid waste treatment technology currently applied in Asella town, Ethiopia.

The energy production from solid waste materials, if applied to Asella town, might reduce the volume/weight of solid waste and power supply problems of municipal administration.² Urban solid waste reduction implies that it can reduce environmental pollution and health problems. The result of the reduction in environmental pollution will prevent many health problems.⁴ Therefore, a reduction of environmental pollution leads to a reduction in soil, surface, and water pollution and even air pollution.⁶

We can update science and technology to apply new waste-to-energy transformation technology. Urban administrators can also manage and support alternative power source searching from dumped solid waste. The AOR of trash, paper, plastic, food, and others was strongly associated with managing the dumped solid waste in Asella Town (Table 4).

Limitations and Future Work

The limitation of this study was that solid waste management problems other than those of residential institutions were not addressed due to the constraint of resources. Hazardous waste was not assessed during this study period. So, the expected future work will be an assessment of hazardous waste management practices in Asella town, Ethiopia.

Conclusions and Recommendations

In comparison to previous studies, the per capita solid waste generation rate was high. Trash, food, plastics, paper, metal remains, and e-waste comprise the proportions of solid waste. The ability of the municipal government to collect solid trash was in the middle stages. Because of the health issues and environmental pollution in Asella, the disposal of solid waste from Asella was not scientifically appropriate.

In Asella, there was a considerable level of public discontent with municipal solid waste collection services. Waste-to-energy conversion techniques have not been implemented in the town of Asella. Up-to-date materials and cost-effective energy extraction, along with the adoption of reuse and recycling and the reduction of the volume of municipal solid waste, are necessary to support solid waste management systems. The production of biogas is an economically viable energy extraction method in poor nations like Ethiopia, such as Asella.

Urban community members should be informed of the use of cutting-edge waste-to-energy conversion and material recycling systems. A decision-maker contributes to the creation of supporting guidelines and policies. Academic experts are anticipated to update the energy exchange and material recovery, focusing on low-income nations like Asella, Ethiopia.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

I thank Jimma University Post Graduate PhD Research Directorate Office and Arsi University for their financial and technical support while I was carried out my research project in Asella, Ethiopia

Abbreviations and Acronyms

AOR Adjusted odds ratio

CI Confidence intervals

MSW Municipal solid waste

SAS Statistical analysis

TWMSW Total weight of municipal solid waste

SWM Solid waste management

WHO World Health Organization

ORCID iD

Amde Eshete Gebre

Consent to Participate

The oral consent that I prepared for data collection states, “You do not have to answer any questions; if you do not want to, you can stop answering the questions at any time. However, your honest answer to these questions will help investigate my research project entitled “The Solid Waste Management and Determinant Factors in Asella, Ethiopia: Generation Rates, Disposal Practices, and Public Perceptions.

Consent for Publication

The authors had dedicated themselves to publishing this work as their original work performed in the study site.

Author Contributions

Amde Eshete was the principal investigator; Alemayehu Haddis undertook conceptualization; and Embialle Mengistie analyzed the research results.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Data Availability Statement

The data is available from the corresponding author. The important results are shown in tables and graphs in the results sections of the prepared manuscript.*

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