Abstract
Early childhood teachers are often required to sing, which requires confidence. The purpose of the present study was to treat early childhood teachers who self-identified as uncertain singers using either a group singing (GS) approach, or a talking approach, based on Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT). The aim of the study was to increase measures of singing confidence. Forty teachers enrolled in the workshops and were assigned to either ACT or GS. Overall it was found that both ACT and GS resulted in significant improvements in singing confidence. Both interventions were similar on increased confidence measures and the GS outperformed ACT on an overall rating of improvement in self-perceived tone-deafness. We suggest that the interventions had benefits for participants through the group experience itself; that being prepared for music increased their confidence, and that gaining some knowledge of singing techniques led to a sense of empowerment. Implications and future research are discussed.
Singing is an integral part of human life, and is recognized as one of the most natural means of musical expression for children (Campbell, 1998). In the early childhood years children often spontaneously sing as they play and the early childhood centre is often a nucleus of much unconstrained and natural music making (Bodkin-Allen, 2009; Campbell, 1998; Nardo, Custodero, Persellin, & Fox, 2006; Willberg, 2001). Early childhood teachers are usually generalist teachers with little training in music (Neokleous, 2013; Siebenaler, 2006). The early childhood centre, therefore, provides an interesting meeting point: a context where young children are arguably at their most musical, combined with teachers who often have little or no specifically musical training.
Singing plays an important role in early childhood education (ECE). It can foster a variety of developmental skills (Feierabend, 1990) and support social development (Campbell & Scott-Kassner, 2009), with the findings of a recent study demonstrating that formal musical activities in early childhood can have a significant impact on language development (Lorenzo, Herrera, Hernández-Candelas, & Badea, 2014). Furthermore, through singing, early childhood teachers pass on culture, behaviour, and musical skills to the next generation (Roy, Baker, Baker, & Hamilton, 2012). However, previous studies have suggested that a number of early childhood teachers lack confidence in their own singing abilities (Bainger, 2010; Bodkin-Allen, 2009; Neokleous, 2013; Richards, 1999; Swain & Bodkin-Allen, 2014; Willberg, 2001). A large American survey of early childhood teachers found that while singing was the most common musical activity it was also the area where the teachers felt least skilled; a common theme was that the teachers were not comfortable with their own voices (Nardo et al., 2006).
Richards (1999) suggested that teachers’ singing confidence is affected by their own experiences as a student. Negative experiences in childhood or adolescence are a common theme in the literature exploring early childhood teachers’ confidence, with participants outlining details of being publicly humiliated in front of classmates, for example: asked to mouth the words, or pull the curtains instead of singing (Bainger, 2009; Bodkin, 1999; Swain & Bodkin-Allen, 2014).
This lack of singing confidence has led some early childhood teachers to self-identify as “tone-deaf” (Bodkin-Allen, 2009; Willberg, 2001). Previous research has suggested that the myth of tone deafness persists in some Western societies (Boyack, 1999) and that it is a term used by some early childhood teachers to describe their lack of musical ability and singing confidence (Bodkin-Allen, 2009). “Tone-deaf”, as we refer to it here, is not to be confused with the condition amusia, a musical perceptual deficit, but rather is an (often) self-imposed term that equates with not being able to sing in tune (Sloboda, Wise, & Peretz, 2005). According to Sloboda et al. (2005), the self-defined tone-deaf lack confidence in their singing; they are “sometimes not sure whether they sing badly or not, and fear keeps them from finding out” (p. 258). One study suggests that around 15% of the general population self-identifies as “tone-deaf” (Cuddy, Balkwill, Peretz, & Holden, 2005).
Abril (2007) and Ruddock and Leong (2005) noted that people who refer to themselves as “non-singers” express anxiety towards singing and often resist situations where they may have to sing. A child being labelled in such a way “stigmatizes them for a lifetime” (Whidden, 2008, p. 12), often leading to disengagement from singing in any context. Whidden (2010) outlines the cases of self-identified non-singers who had not sung for a considerable number of years after being told they could not sing. West (2009) describes the withdrawal from singing activities as Selective Mutism for Singing (SMS), a kind of self-enforced muteness towards singing. This has many manifestations, including refusing to sing in any circumstances, to refusing to sing solo, or refusing to sing in some circumstances (e.g., a teacher may sing in an early childhood centre, but stop when another adult enters the area). Ruddock noted that for her participants, despite having a “general belief that singing is part of our primeval heritage, these individuals take care to avoid singing where they might be heard, unless drunk or ‘singin’ that song’ when their football team wins!” (2012, p. 219).
Early childhood teachers are not the only group of educators discussed in the literature relating to singing confidence; there is a growing body of research that examines the musical confidence of primary teachers (Apfelstadt, 1989; Biasutti, 2010; Heyning, 2011; Mills, 1989; Russell-Bowie, 2009). It appears that there are many similar issues. Apfelstadt (1989) discusses the fear of or resistance to singing that she often encountered among classroom teachers, giving details about one particular student who stated she felt inadequate to teach children about singing since she had been told from a young age that she was not musical. Heyning (2011) states that generally speaking, singing is not an area where many pre-service or in-service teachers feel confident.
Studies that have focused on improving singing confidence in early childhood teachers are also reported in the literature. Richards (1999) looked at the effect that participation in music foundation classes had on the confidence levels of two groups of pre-service early childhood teachers. Both groups participated in a “Music and Movement” programme that focused on developing music skills (singing, learning keyboard skills, playing tuned and untuned percussion instruments), one group for a semester, and one for a year. Richards reported that the teachers who were involved in the longer programme developed a higher level of confidence in their own ability.
Bainger’s (2009, 2010) research focused on developing the confidence of a small number of early childhood teachers by implementing a collaborative model of professional development. Teachers were mentored by an “expert” who observed them and gave feedback on their teaching. An important part of the study was the relationship between the researcher and the teachers: it was “essential for the researcher to establish a supportive and accepting relationship” that respected the teachers’ feelings of musical inadequacy (Bainger, 2009, p. 17). The teachers also kept reflective journals as part of the process. Likewise, Baker (2007) used journaling as a method to address the low level of confidence with music felt by many pre-service early childhood and primary teachers. The journals were designed to complement the tutorial programme in which the students were enrolled, which contained 26 hours of music education.
Neokleous (2013) used a similar approach in her intervention strategy to increase the confidence of a group of pre-service kindergarten teachers in Cyprus. Her students were enrolled in a one semester course that incorporated singing activities, basic music notation skills, and tuned percussion as well as two individual vocal lessons. Qualitative data was collected in a “singing reflective notebook” (p. 157) where participants recorded their feelings and attitudes about singing. Neokleous carried out a pre- and post-intervention questionnaire to evaluate the impact of the methods course on the students’ perceptions of singing, confidence levels, and attitudes. Neokleous (p. 163) notes that her participants showed a higher level of confidence gains than the participants in other similar studies (Richards, 1999; Siebenaler, 2006), which could be attributed to the use of the individual tuition and reflection notebooks.
The present research aims to compare a brief programme of group singing with a psychological approach, as it is clear from previous research that low confidence in singing often has psychological causes, as discussed further below. The participants were early childhood teachers who self-identified as uncertain singers.
Group singing (GS) and mechanism of action
Group singing will sometimes use a master-apprentice model. This method relies on good modelling and feedback (Callaghan, 2000). This is similar to the expert-mentor programme that Bainger (2009, 2010) implemented with a small group of early childhood teachers. Our group singing model is based upon the expert-mentor concept, along with a strategy that focuses on the participation aspect of group singing (Pascale, 2013). This involves creating an environment where the “major emphasis is on participation, not on mastering melody, rhythm or lyrics” (2013, p. 179). While some strategies to improve singing confidence in non-singers have focused on individual vocal tuition (Neokleous, 2013; Whidden, 2010) we believed that fear of singing solo would deter participants and wanted to capitalize on the “energizing, calming and uplifting” nature of group singing (Pascale, 2013, p. 181).
ACT training and mechanism of action
As established in the literature, previous research had found teachers who identify as uncertain singers have strong emotional reactions to singing and this was confirmed in our initial assessment of the participants (Swain & Bodkin-Allen, 2014). Many reported issues with confidence and self-consciousness, which are not necessarily issues related to actual singing production or ability. It was decided to trial a psychological approach to deal with issues of confidence, fear, and avoidance as a contrast to a singing group. The approach chosen is known as Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT) treatment. ACT is a Third Wave Behaviour Therapy (Hayes, 2004), widely used to treat psychological problems. The components of this therapy include: values; acceptance; cognitive diffusion, self as context; being present; and, committed action (for theoretical review see Hayes, Luoma, Bond, Masuda, & Lillis, 2006). Hayes et al. (2006) suggest that ACT can be applied across a broad range of ideas using acceptance and mindfulness processes, and commitment and behaviour change processes, to produce psychological flexibility. This type of approach might be usefully applied to self-described lack of singing confidence as it is a more complex issue than one of simply singing.
Studies comparing GS and ACT
The purpose of the present study was to compare group singing methods (GS) with a talking therapy based on ACT in a group of early childhood teachers who self-identified as uncertain singers. To our knowledge no previous studies have been conducted. ACT has never been used to aid singing in any form. ACT is often compared with other forms of psychological theory, such as cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) but not usually with other types of established therapies such as group singing for those who lack confidence. The early childhood teachers would receive training for a programme consisting of weekly workshops for a period of four weeks and their confidence assessed to examine if GS or ACT could improve their singing confidence. It was hypothesized that both methods would be effective.
Method
Participants
Early childhood education providers in two urban New Zealand regions were phoned by a research assistant and introduced to the study. These included both childcare centres and kindergartens. Childcare centres provide care and education for children aged 0–5 and while the majority of staff are trained teachers, not all are required to be. They are able to provide full-time care for children of working parents, and they usually have a higher adult to child ratio than kindergartens. Kindergartens provide care and education from the age of 2 and a half, however, typically for 3 and 4 year olds due to waiting lists, and all staff must be trained teachers. Kindergartens provide part-time education, which can be difficult for working parents, and they are generally cheaper than childcare centres. The researcher visited each centre or kindergarten and spoke to staff individually, asking them if they had ever referred to themselves as “tone-deaf”. Any teachers who fell into this category were invited to join the study. Participants received NZ$10 store vouchers for attendance at each of four two-hour evening workshops. Forty teachers responded to the request and came to the first session. No data is available on what proportion of teachers the 40 who self-selected represent. Thirty-nine of the teachers were female with a mean age of 41 (age range 22–62 years). Most of the participants identified themselves primarily as New Zealand European (85%), with 12.5% identifying as Maori and one person responding as Other. All participants identified English as their first language. Participants were mostly married (53%) or partnered (29%) with the remaining 18% reporting they were single. Seventy-three percent were employed full-time.
Design
This was an intervention study with assessments being made before and after the groups attended the four workshops. It was a mixed design with the outcome measures being shift in musical confidence measures and a subjective question about improvement of their confidence.
Procedure
Participants in each town were randomly allocated to a group, although some participants not being able to attend the group to which they had been allocated meant that there was not an even distribution across the two interventions. In total 15 teachers participated in the GS group and 25 in the ACT group. The workshops consisted of four sessions all facilitated by the same person. In Workshop 1 all participants were asked to fill in a paper questionnaire, including demographic details. Following administration of the questionnaire participants then began either the GS or ACT intervention. Numbers who completed the four-session workshops, and whose data is presented here are 13 for GS (out of the 15 who began) and 16 for ACT (out of 25). Interestingly the completion rate is much higher for the GS group than the ACT group (87% compared with 64%) and this may be because the ACT participants became frustrated or annoyed by the lack of singing in the workshops, and failed to see a connection between the programme and an improvement in singing confidence when they were not actually doing any singing. Some of the comments in the post-questionnaire from the ACT participants would tend to support this theory. Several commented that one way the workshops could be improved was by including actual singing.
The ACT sessions covered the following topics: Workshop 1 mindfulness, values; Workshop 2 mindfulness, acceptance, diffusion and committed action; Workshop 3 mindfulness, avoidance, cognitive diffusion, committed action; Workshop 4 mindfulness, description of ACT theories, grounding and contact with the present moment. There was never any singing involved in these workshops. Workshops were fully scripted and experiential (and available from the corresponding author on request). They were written by the author (NS) who has been trained in ACT and workshops were conducted by a facilitator who received training from the author.
The group singing intervention used a songbook with 12 songs that was created especially for the study. The songbook contained a diverse collection of songs, most of which were appropriate for use in an early childhood context and were chosen to be enjoyable for group singing. Examples include: “Te Aroha” (a Maori song), “A Ram Sam Sam” (a traditional children’s song), “The Library Song” (from the Kiwikidsongs series produced by Learning Media for New Zealand children), “Made in New Zealand” (the first Hook, Line & Singalong song, see http://nzmusic.org.nz/resources/hook-line-singalong/), “Ayelevi”, and “Bala Pata Zoom” (two African children’s songs from the resource Songs for Children, edited by Julian Raphael, 2009). Some songs allowed for part singing and some were rounds; while these were on the more complex side for use in the early childhood centre, they were chosen to give the teachers the chance to experience success singing in parts and in canon. The facilitator was a trained singer, fulfilling the master role of the master-apprentice teaching model. She explained basic vocal techniques and breathing exercises to the teachers. Comments were restricted to very general feedback of a positive nature, such as: “doesn’t it sound great when we are all singing”, “listen to us all singing together”. No discussion of feelings about singing was engaged in. The same facilitator delivered both interventions.
A post-intervention questionnaire was given to participants at the last workshop where some questions from the earlier questionnaire were repeated and some new open-ended evaluative questions were added. Data was then analysed using IBM SPSS statistics version 20. Open-ended questions from both questionnaires were summarized and compared for the participants who completed the four workshops. Thematic analysis using an inductive approach was used, where we attempted to code the data without trying to fit it into a “pre-existing coding frame” or our analytic pre-conceptions (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 12).
Results
Participant flow
Participants were invited to join the study from a number of early childhood education centres across two small cities. Forty teachers registered an interest in attending these workshops. They were divided into an ACT group and a GS group in each city. Four workshops were delivered to each group. At the final session 13 out of 15 were at the GS workshop and 16 out of 25 were at the ACT workshop. No reasons for drop-out were recorded.
Quantitative analysis
We have reported on six questions asked in both pre and post-questionnaires. Most of the questions are related to confidence of singing in various situations (for full discussion of the pre-intervention questions see Swain & Bodkin-Allen, 2014). Statistical tests showed that there were significant differences between pre-intervention and post-intervention scores on all questions (see Table 1). These questions were analysed over both intervention groups using ANOVA. Intervention group data was also analysed individually and there were no statistical differences between interventions for any question apart from: “Do you like singing?” where GS showed a marginally higher increase in ratings than ACT (p < .05).
Participant’s responses to repeated questions on musical confidence before and after a four-workshop course aimed to remediate tone deafness (n = 29).
Both groups were then asked how much the workshops had improved their “tone deafness”. Responses were on a scale from 1 (not at all) to 8 (completely gone). Participants in the GS group had an average rating of 5.75 and participants in the ACT group rated their improvement at 3.76. The difference between groups was found to be statistically significant (F = 8.78, p < .01).
Qualitative data
The responses to three open questions from the post-questionnaire are reported here (Has anything about your ability to sing changed for you at work?/What did you find useful about the workshops?/Do you like singing now?). When analysing the responses and while recognizing that we cannot totally divorce ourselves from our “theoretical and epistemological commitments”, and that our data “are not coded in an epistemological vacuum” (Braun & Clarke, 2006, p. 12), we used an inductive approach for the coding of the data. Three themes emerged from the data: Planning and Being Prepared; Value of the Group Approach, and Singing Empowerment.
Planning and being prepared
One theme that emerged from the data was that being prepared and organized when it came to singing in ECE, led to an increase in confidence. Participants in both the ACT and GS commented on this. For example, Participant 28 (GS), when asked what was useful about the workshops, stated: “Thinking about taking music sessions—self-awareness—is it my singing or my planning? Being planned raises my confidence for the music session”. For some of the participants in the ACT intervention group the mindfulness exercises raised their awareness of the importance of planning for music sessions. Two participants in particular exemplify this: “I have found that being more planned helps my confidence more. Realizing that although my singing is not the best the children are not worried. It’s more about being well planned and prepared. That helps my confidence” (P.30/ACT) and “I have relaxed and am aware of the need to plan” (P.33/ACT).
Value of the group approach
Many participants commented on the benefits of being in a group, predominantly a group of like-minded individuals. Understanding that they were not the only ones who felt inadequate when it came to singing was of comfort: “Realizing there are a lot more people out there feeling very similar to me, with the same issues” (P.37/ACT) and “Other people with the same lack of confidence” (P.8/GS). It also may have made some participants question their own assessment of their singing: “Finding others who feel the same way yet whom I regard as competent at singing” (P. 39/ACT). The value of the group approach came through strongly from participants from both GS and ACT groups, for example, when asked “What did you find useful?”: “Sharing ideas and experiences; listening to others’ ideas” (P.38/ACT) and “Working in groups, ‘a problem shared’” (P.8/GS). Perhaps this comment from Participant 21(ACT) exemplifies the theme of the value of the group approach: “Talking to other participants to hear their experiences and ways they coped. I WAS NOT ALONE!!” [sic].
Singing empowerment
Interestingly, there were several participants whose comments reflected singing confidence and empowerment, whether they were in the GS group or the ACT group. As one would expect, the stronger comments related directly to singing confidence were among the GS participants. When asked if anything had changed about their singing at work, some participants stated that they were more confident: “More confident, trying different voices” (P.25/GS); “I think I sing louder and more confidently now” (P.26/GS); and “Sing along now with everyone else” (P.9/GS). Others gave comments that reflected this theme when asked what they found useful about the workshops: “Inspired me to be more vocal in a group singing situation” (P.6/GS) and “Improved co-ordination and more confident” (P.4/GS). For many of those in the Group Singing workshops this was directly related to gaining some specific knowledge about singing techniques: “Trying the breathing technique” (P.7/GS); “Increased awareness of tone and pitch” (P.1/GS) and “Knowing how to sing harmony” (P.2/GS). Being taught some specific concepts that were directly related to singing led to many participants using musical terminology in their comments, and thus showing a sense of empowerment in their responses.
While several of the ACT intervention participants still reflected a sense of singing empowerment in their responses, this was generally through a change in attitude, rather than through development of musical knowledge. A common response was that the participants were singing more and this is typified by Participant 29 (ACT): “My abilities are the same but I am just trying to sing more than I used to during the programme”. Focusing less on what others thought improved singing confidence for some, for example: “Less worried about others so sing a little louder” (P.10/ACT) and “Understanding that I am not as bad as I was and I can let go of things I do not want to be part of” (P.12/ACT). Thinking about the purpose of singing in ECE also helped some participants to feel better about their singing, as is reflected in this response: “More confidence. Realize children enjoy the act of music, they don’t mind how I sing, as long as I do!” (P.36/ACT). For others empowerment came through developing strategies and was often related to mindfulness: “Thinking about strategies to get rid of negative thoughts” (P.34/ACT); “Figuring out my feelings and what worries me the most” (P.33/ACT); and “Practising letting things/situations that would normally stress slide by” (P.13/ACT). For those who enjoyed singing before they attended the workshops but who lacked confidence, a sense of empowerment was illustrated by comments such as: “I always loved to sing but now I feel more confident about the way I sound and care less about what others think” (P.10/ACT) and “I enjoy singing but found I was worried about how I would sound to others. I now think about the breathing technique taught to get more power and volume” (P.8/GS).
Not all participants experienced a sense of empowerment with regard to their singing. There were also some negative comments in relation to perceived singing ability in the post-questionnaire, largely from participants in the ACT group. While they may have experienced a growth in confidence, or felt less self-conscious when singing, some still did not rate their own singing highly, for example: “Still sound rather ‘shit’ in my ears” (P.19/ACT) and “Have always enjoyed singing, but always sound out of tune” (P.29/ACT). Many comments related to being out of tune or being flat.
Discussion
Singing confidence can be a problem for early childhood teachers in Aotearoa/New Zealand who work in an environment where singing is a part of daily activities. A self-selected group of early childhood teachers attended workshops designed to remediate their self-described lack of confidence in singing. They attended four two-hour workshops that either focused on a singing intervention (GS) or a talking intervention derived from Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT).
Our findings suggest that both the singing approach and talking were able to increase singing confidence in several domains. Both ACT and GS methods were effective. This short course suggests that significant improvements of perceptions of ability to sing can be made. Previous research aimed at teaching student teachers to be more confident teaching music has used similar measures to the present study. Richards (1999), Siebenaler (2006), and Neokleous (2013) all had long interventions and only made modest gains. For example, in Richards (1999) people were asked if they felt comfortable singing to young children and mean ratings increased from 3.1 to 3.2 after a semester-long singing intervention. Similarly, Siebenaler (2006) asked about singing a song with comfort to children also after a semester-long intervention scores improved from 4.1 to 4.5. Neokleous (2013) asked, “I think I would be good at teaching young children to sing” and their intervention increased mean ratings from 3.0 to 4.0. Comparatively on a similar question mean ratings in the present study increased from 4.5 to 5.8. Taken together these results indicate that the present intervention had greater gains than other published studies.
An evaluative question about “tone-deafness” was asked. Teachers could rate from no change (1) to completely cured (8). Both groups rated improvements in tone deafness (3.8 ACT and 5.8 GS). Notably here there is a significant difference between modes of delivery. Ratings were made immediately after the final workshop. These findings indicate that GS may be a more useful approach than ACT to improve singing confidence. However, analysis of repeated questions was not sufficiently powered to answer this question. GS had some concrete benefits for early childhood teachers, the most obvious being the resource of the 12 songs which were designed for use in the childhood centres. Learning these songs with some confidence will have been beneficial to this group, which is supported by previous research (Gruenhagen, 2012). The ACT group might have understood their own behaviour better and had set some values-based goals, but they may have been yet to gain any concrete benefits from the training. Future studies should include longer follow-up times.
Our findings raise key areas not previously reported in the literature. Participants noted the connections between being confident with their delivery of music in their centre and being well planned or prepared. This came through for both the GS and ACT participants, although it may have occurred as a result of simply attending the four session workshops that were related to singing in early childhood. The benefit of the group interactions for these early childhood teachers is another finding that has not been addressed in the literature. While the benefits of group singing have been noted (Pascale, 2013) and much other research in this area has taken place with groups of similarly low-confident early childhood teachers (Neokleous, 2013; Richards, 1999; Siebenaler, 2006), our findings suggest that the group situation, the shared practices, and recognition that others had similar feelings and experiences all combined to have a positive outcome for many of the early childhood teachers.
While the results show that most participants increased their singing confidence through developing some technical skills (GS group) or through being able to let go of negative feelings (ACT group), there is still an underlying sense within the participants that they are not good singers. Neokleous (2013) found that her participants responded particularly well to the individual lessons that were part of her intervention, stating that if the individual lessons had not existed it is likely they would have continued to question their singing ability. One of the main values of these lessons was that the participants were able to have a professional musician verify that they were singing accurately. Individual lessons could be combined with the group approach to increase the benefits of the intervention.
This work was an extension of ACT therapy, which is usually used to address psychopathologies (Hayes et al., 2006). ACT therapy is a model of key intervention and change processes and is still a developing field (Hayes et al., 2013). ACT has been found effective in diverse areas such as skin picking, racial prejudice, chronic paediatric pain, weight maintenance, and self-stigma (Hayes et al., 2013). The present research adds singing confidence and the self-defined uncertain singer to this list. While testing between GS and ACT showed that teachers may have preferred GS, both interventions were successful. Future interventions would most usefully combine aspects of both interventions. A combined approach might also address the problem of participant drop-out.
Limitations include the self-selected nature of participants. If singing for teachers who are uncertain singers elicits a fear avoidance response it seems logical that the most severely affected teachers would not have volunteered for these courses. A further limitation is the small and geographically specific sample size. There are also more modern feedback systems available using visual feedback technology that could be utilized in future studies (Callaghan, Thorpe, & van Doorn, 2004). In this study groups were small and the dropout rate was high (28%), which indicates workshops may not have interested all teachers sufficiently to complete the sessions.
It should also be noted that we did not specifically look at the musical skill level of our participants, nor measure this before or after our intervention. Future research should take into account some form of measurement of participants’ singing skill and whether this improves after being introduced to singing techniques such as improved breath control and listening to other singers. While improving singing confidence is one thing, improving musical skill levels is another aspect that needs to be considered.
This research suggests that specific training courses for early childhood teachers could be effective. Improving confidence is a major component of better singing performance. Courses as short as four sessions can make significant changes to how people feel about their abilities and their ability to fulfil their job requirements. The authors suggest that a combination of both singing and talking would maximize improvements in singing confidence, but for the purposes of research their effects might be considered separately. Further research could expand these findings to other groups, such as primary teachers, and look at combining the elements of each approach, GS and ACT, to create an optimal remediation package for the uncertain singer.
Footnotes
Funding
This project was funded by the Sneddon Trust.
Author biographies
Sally and Nicola are childhood friends and have always enjoyed making music (and working) together.