Crafting successful music careers: Insights from the professional lives of Australian pianists

Giftedness/high ability

Music is a field where the word “talent” is heard frequently because we are often aware of talented musicians; not only violinists, but conductors, vocalists, and pianists. No-one is born with the talent to play the violin, but many are born with the “gift” to learn and play at a level beyond their peers of the same age. When young musicians show musical talent, we often attribute this to musical giftedness. Gagné and McPherson (2016) refer to stages of maturation associated with music talent development for the demonstration of innate musical ability. A starting point is that musical ability is multidimensional and that being musically gifted cannot be judged on performance skills alone. The identification of musical ability is often complex because an individual’s talent may not develop in a linear manner. As such, we know that giftedness is not always explicit. Music aptitude tests are designed to measure musical potential (Hanson, 2019), while talent, which is realized through a measurable performance and achievement, provides an indication of future success as a musician. While musical potential is associated with developmental onset, musical expression and creativity are more difficult to identify; however, the “spark of potential talent” in the context of performance is immediate and reveals a level of giftedness and potential future success (Haroutounian, 2000, p. 145).

Youth with musical gifts demonstrate various musical developmental levels and share the drive to succeed while transitioning from general to specialist music training through their high school and tertiary music study. Manturzewska (1990) suggests that musical development during the formative years depends on increased periods of deliberate practice, performance, and competition, while McPherson (2005) states that performance reproduction and hours of practice are not the only factors in the making of a musician. Indeed, approaches to practicing vary widely even among the higher education music students, and there continue to be theoretical debates regarding what constitutes effective practice (Odendaal, 2019). In initiating the SP/A model for talent development in the domain of classical music, Subotnik and Jarvin (2005) outline a spectrum of developmental stages, processes and timings, based on physical and personality attributes, performance, background, and experiences.

Motivation and passion

Passion for music is an essential element in building music careers and works hand-in-hand with motivation in sustaining the drive to achieve professional performance levels. Subotnik and Jarvin (2005) uphold that student motivation and the recognition of music as an art form are important educational outcomes for musicians. The implication is that while musicians emerge through fixed sequential developmental stages involving the negotiation of changing contexts, they ultimately emerge with diverse levels of competency. The motivation that drives expert musicians changes considerably as they grow toward musical excellence. Higher levels of self-determination are associated with an increased likelihood of successful transformation and achievement through a process of external and internal regulation. The relationship between passion and the attainment of an elite level of performance for expert musicians is reliant on many factors including (but not limited to) deliberate practice. Vallerand et al. (2003) discuss two types of passion—obsessive and harmonious:

Obsessive passion refers to a controlled internalization of an activity in one’s identity that creates an internal pressure to engage in the activity that the person likes. Harmonious passion refers to an autonomous internalization that leads individuals to choose to engage in the activity that they like. (p. 756)

Results of a study of expert musicians by Bonneville-Roussy et al. (2011) showed that harmonious passion predicted the use of mastery goals and a higher level of performance. Obsessive passion also positively predicted performance attainment, yet harmonious passion was a positive predictor of subjective well-being for professional musicians. These results suggest the existence of two different pathways linking passion and elite performance, where the harmonious passion path is the most adaptive because becoming an international musician is a long and difficult process

Throughout their development, musicians are motivated by various internal and external sources. For example, as today’s music students are able to access a vast collection of performances via the internet, listening to recordings can contribute to self-regulated learning, development of expression, metacognitive skills, and individuality (Volioti & Williamon, 2020). At certain points musicians draw inspiration from the intrinsically enjoyable aspects of musical involvement. At other times, however, they rely on people who support them through the rigorous demands of achieving exceptional performance skills. As our study demonstrates, when professional musicians are asked how they managed to practice for the thousands of hours required over many years without giving up, neither their courage nor their sacrifices are mentioned: what they talk about is their passion for music.

Transitioning from expert student to novice professional

Several characteristics differentiate experts from novices. For example, experts know more, their knowledge is more organized and integrated, they have more efficient strategies for accessing knowledge and using it, and they are self-regulated and display different motivations. The self-determination of an individual’s motivation is a significant influence upon the success of the transition from student to professional. A multidisciplinary view of engagement (Reid et al., 2019) explains the transformative processes for developing one’s sense of being through tacit knowledge and active engagement in professional self. Likewise, the Sense of Self model (Rowley & Munday, 2014) argues that many students at the commencement of their academic study are extrinsically motivated, and, as they move through their training, the image of their future self aligns with their self-concept and assists with enhancing their self-image. In the transition toward the future self, there is a transformation in both image and motivation which becomes intrinsic because the reality of ideal professional self becomes more visible.

Like a shares portfolio, the portfolio career allows the musician to balance higher and lower risk options, for instance, to meet artistic needs through freelance performing work, while simultaneously engaging in more financially stable part-time work in music education or arts management (Bennett, 2016). One of the difficulties for higher music education is that portfolio careers—those featuring multiple concurrent roles—are too complex to be measured by traditional metrics. This issue has been highlighted by Bartleet et al. (2019), who identified five issues of concern for higher music education: the need for entrepreneurship, migration and mobility, digitization, gender parity, and mental and physical health and well-being of musicians. Subotnik and Jarvin (2005) place the construct of resilience across the three stages of the SP/A model to indicate the relevance of challenge and failure as opportunities to persist and grow. The transition from ability to artistry is influenced by indicators that may hinder or encourage characteristics such as the resilience needed to build high-level performance skills. In higher music education, discussions about career development literacy can focus on the functional aspects of becoming employed. Behind the functional aspect of employability, however, lies the development of individual learners with unique strengths and talents, aspirations, and interests (López-Íñiguez & Bennett, 2021).

Summary of literature

This review of literature highlights the nuanced conceptions of musical giftedness/talent and its development over time. Passion for music and extrinsic/intrinsic motivation play an important role in maintaining skill development over many years. In particular, higher music education is focused on facilitating student transition to novice professional and paving the way to portfolio music careers.

The need to acknowledge potential musical giftedness is defined by the integration of criteria such as music aptitude and achievement in the developmental schema outlined in SP/A theory (Subotnik & Jarvin, 2005). In their three-staged SP/A model of developmental process, Subotnik and Jarvin stress that mediating variables for one phase need not transfer to the next, and suggest that musically talented students exhibit teachable attributes that are observable across developmental stages. These include the capacity for resilience, intrinsic motivation, and musicality, mediated by variables such as learning characteristics, environmental aspects, the quality of the student–teacher experience, and persistence. Transitioning into professional musicianship is a journey fraught with potential obstacles that are often mitigated by an individual’s motivational stance, and the need to engage in a variety of paid work. Further literature will be discussed in the findings that follow.

Research aims

The review of literature highlights the need to understand how musical talent is developed from early stages to the professional level and what musical skills, personal characteristics, and environmental factors facilitate the building of successful classical piano careers. This study aims to identify these elements to assist higher education institutions to fully prepare graduates for professional lives. Our research question is: How can learnings derived from applying the SP/A model inform current higher music education practice?

Sample

A total of 16 male and 12 female mid-to-late career pianists took part in this study. Age range at the time of interview was 40 to 75.

Analysis

Using a thematic analysis approach (Creswell, 2014), the themes unfolded under three theoretical premises based on Subotnik and Jarvin (2005):

A review of further literature identified an additional focus on transitioning from study into the profession and career skills for current music students. We called this category “Transition into the profession.” Emerging themes under these four premises are listed below and illustrated with direct quotes from the interviews as evidence.

From abilities toward competencies: Early and primary learning experiences

All but one of the respondents began learning to play the piano at a very early age: one as early as 2 years old. Only one pianist started later, at 10 years old, but reported spending many earlier years exploring sounds and chords on the piano alone and being introduced to music notation only when formal lessons began. Learning to read music notation was immediately introduced to all the respondents when learning to play the piano, with teachers using age-appropriate methods such as bright colors, musical games, and rewards to assist students in acquiring music reading skills:

My first teacher ha[d] a big piece of cardboard with five lines, obviously representing a stave, and she would put down a clef, either a treble or a bass. Sometimes she’d have beads, where she would put them in between a line or on a line and occasionally it was swapped with sweets. (P16, M)

We had some lessons in solfége, rhythmical lessons and dancing and clapping. I learnt very simple pieces and how to read them with a teacher. (P27, F)

Although music education literature suggests that notation should be introduced after beginners are able to produce sounds on their instrument (Mills & McPherson, 2016), little evidence exists regarding what piano teachers do in their studios and what impact the introduction of music reading has on beginners’ enjoyment of piano playing. In this study, participants’ quotes illustrate that some teachers emphasize the importance of reading notation, while others develop basic aural and rhythm skills prior to focusing on music notation.

All participants reported learning a large amount of repertoire during the early years. Research suggests this assists in the development of music reading ability, technical skills, and appreciation of musical styles (McPherson, 2005):

Then I did learn a lot of repertoire, I used to think the AMEB exam was a bit of a joke as you had to learn only so few pieces. I used to learn very large numbers of pieces. (P5, F)

I learnt a lot of extra repertoire, because I remember going into Eisteddfod and entering in at least 10 sections each year. (P15, M)

From the start, all 28 pianists in this study adopted structured approaches to practicing and a regular practice regime. Learning an instrument at an early age and maintaining regular long-term practice schedules are in line with Ericsson’s (1997) views on the development of expertise and highlight the importance of accumulating large amounts of deliberate practice:

I used to have two lessons a week from a very early age. I think that was very valuable, as errors didn’t set in place because the teacher would see you so soon, they were picked up quickly and corrected. I always practised twice a day, one hour before school and after I would practise again. (P5, F)

I do remember that feeling of having my practice overheard because my teacher [my mother] was in the house. I think that was probably a good thing because it meant that I practised fairly well. (P3, F)

All participants commented on undertaking piano exams every year and regularly performing in concerts and Eisteddfods (in Australia, these music and ballet competitions provide an opportunity for contestants to compete in singing, dancing, acting and instrumental performance):

I belonged to several music societies where the more talented musicians would meet each month in a very supportive, non-competitive atmosphere and perform for each other. (P11, M)

I did go into a lot of Eisteddfods. From age seven I used to enter everything I could possibly enter, just to learn all the pieces. I used to play in a lot of concerts for musical societies and Eisteddfods and exams. (P5, F)

Australian music teachers frequently use standardized music examinations and competitions to set short and long-term performance goals for students and to motivate student practice (McCormick & McPherson, 2003). These activities provide extra opportunities to learn new repertoire and gain experience in performing in unfamiliar settings.

At the same time as learning to play the piano, all participants were involved in additional music activities during primary education, for example, singing in choirs, playing piano duets, and organizing their own music-making groups. These experiences further helped to develop their general musicianship, musicality, and piano skills beyond solo repertoire. Ng (2017) suggested that participation in multiple music activities has a beneficial impact on mastery and motivation to achieve performance goals:

We were actually very active vocally, we all did a lot of singing in community choirs. (P4, F)

Every year I was doing piano duets, sometimes with my teacher, sometimes with another student and performing at the concerts. (P25, F)

I started my own group, because I played the ukulele. There was a folk group around at the time called Peter, Paul and Mary and I started my own group based on their repertoire and played ukulele and sang with two of my friends. We used to perform around the classrooms. (P24, F)

In summary, findings show that participants in this study began learning to play the piano and read music notation at an early age and pursued lessons during primary education, developing their technique, learning numerous works, and participating in competitions and extra-curricular music activities.

From abilities toward competencies: Building competencies during secondary education learning experiences

As the pianists started higher school, most were given opportunities to learn another instrument. This broadened their knowledge of repertoire other than piano while providing social opportunities to make music with other like-minded music students in choirs, bands, and orchestras. Research suggests that extension music activities play an important role in motivation to continue music learning at secondary level (Schmidt, 2005):

I did violin, flute and tuba. I used to play in the orchestra in everything, anywhere. I was in musicals singing as well. I had a female role in one musical and a male role in the other, being at a girls’ school we had to be everything. (P14, F)

It was suggested I should actually do an orchestral instrument, they needed some violins at the time. This continued through secondary school where I played in the orchestra, I even had opportunities to conduct the orchestra. I think the multi-facet[ed] approach really broadened horizons and also made me much more interested in music. (P16, M)

Participation in a wider range of musical activities also led to a broadening of musical horizons through exposure to different musical genres, deeper understanding of music and introduction to contemporary music.

The high school started putting on Gilbert and Sullivan musicals, and I was in those, singing and acting. I was getting to know another quite different repertoire, so I started to learn there was music not for study, music in other genres, that broadened me out. (P20, M)

I was playing in jazz clubs for a little while from about Year 10. Then I had a gig as a ballroom pianist at the Regent Hotel. (P19, M)

We had a very advanced choir, and we would have composers in residence, so from about age 12 or 13 I was looking at complex notation. That was very helpful for normalising it. (P18, M)

Research suggests that experience in a range of musical genres could benefit the development of musicians’ skills in being able to meet different expectations of performance and lead to new employment opportunities (Gaunt & Hallam, 2009). Exploring extended performance techniques in contemporary popular and art music repertoire has been shown to be useful in preparation for higher music education study (Johnson, 2005).

As the pianists matured and further developed their technique, they began playing more virtuosic repertoire, including piano concertos. Concerto repertoire provides pianists with episodes of additional virtuosic display requiring development of pianistic technique (Ivanovitch, 2008):

I had a chance to perform two concertos with our school orchestra. We only did one concerto a year at school so to be able to play two was a big deal. (P11, M)

To have a chance in the teenage years to play with professional orchestras, your nationally and internationally recognised orchestras, was gold dust for me. (P6, M)

Performance opportunities also increased during high school, beyond piano exams, and competitions, and included piano solo recitals and regional touring. Research shows that accumulating performance experience helps musicians develop coping strategies, thus suggesting that an early start in concertizing might benefit pianists’ careers (Biasutti & Concina, 2014):

At 16 I started to get prizes for being the most promising, and then I had my first proper lunch-hour recital, which was a 50-minute recital. (P2, F)

I was involved in a lot of extra-curricular music-making, opportunities to perform at school and a scheme where a group of two or three students was sent into the country. (P26, F)

During their secondary education most of the participants were involved in additional collaborative piano activities such as accompanying and chamber music. Collaborative music-making plays an important role in preparation for higher music education (Graves, 2008) and contributes to the development of sight-reading skills (Zhukov et al., 2016):

I had a good chance to play chamber music, play harpsichord, and to do accompaniment. I did quartets and trios and accompanied people, violins, and cellos, so the repertoire knowledge was increased quite well. (P5, F)

I used to read through Beethoven symphonies in piano duets. I carried on accompanying various people. (P13, M)

I would say yes to everything. I was quite a good sight-reader, so I was doing huge amounts of accompanying. We had a fantastic chamber music program, and you had enormous experience in the chamber repertoire. (P24, F)

Summing up, the respondents continued their musical development in secondary school by learning additional instruments, being exposed to different musical genres and contemporary music, playing piano concertos and chamber music, and gaining performance experience. Findings regarding the participants’ music journeys during primary and secondary education learning experiences support the first stage of Subotnik and Jarvin’s (2005) model (ability) and demonstrate how high abilities were developed into talent and nurtured into competency.

From competency toward expertise: Higher education and postgraduate learning experiences

All participants undertook undergraduate music degrees, with their transition into higher education associated with increased awareness of the necessity to achieve high standards in piano technique. This emphasis is partly driven by the assessment regimes in Australian higher education institutions, requiring pianists to pass technical examinations and include challenging repertoire in recital examinations (Zhukov, 2010):

[X] realised I had big of holes in my technique and we worked on lots of studies and exercises. (P14, F)

My pianistic skills in general improved and my ability to learn repertoire within a reasonable time frame. Within a few years my playing was completely transformed in terms of what I could do and perform on stage. (P23, M)

Participants’ knowledge of piano repertoire expanded, in particular exposure to important 20th-century and contemporary works. Research suggests that studying contemporary repertoire requires a broad range of analytical and pianistic approaches that help to establish an interpretative platform for unfamiliar music (Viney & Blom, 2015):

Studying with [X] opened new repertoire for me, his main focus was contemporary. Now I feel that I’m fairly confident in tackling most 20th-century works. (P10, M)

At university level I did a bit more playing piano in larger ensembles. I remember doing the Milhaud Creation of the World, some Charles Ives—repertoire that I hadn’t done before, it was a new experience. I did do quite a lot of 20th-century and more contemporary music by the time I got to tertiary level. (P3, F)

All pianists were active performers while undertaking their undergraduate degree. As previously noted, participants revealed that their experiences in higher education also provided increased opportunities to participate in collaborative piano playing activities:

I won a prize in the [X] International Piano competition. I was quite young, 19–20, and had gone on tours and travelled a lot throughout my country. It trained me to play in any circumstance and on any instrument. (P27, F)

I did concerts with the [X] orchestra and I played the Liszt E-flat Concerto on a Sunday afternoon in the Sydney Town Hall. (P12, M)

I was keeping busy performing and accompanying. Initially I played for strings, but there was a time when I was doing a lot of flute and clarinet repertoire, it just depended on the friends I was mixing with and if they needed free accompanying. (P16, M)

Research suggests that creating performance opportunities and developing entrepreneurial skills during music higher education training is vital for music careers (Bartleet et al., 2019). When reflecting on successful performances, undergraduate and professional musicians highlighted sufficient preparation and positive mindsets as the essential elements (Clark et al., 2014). Inadequate preparation, negative mental outlooks, frustration, and anxiety are unproductive and could have a detrimental effect on building successful music careers.

Having completed their undergraduate degrees, the Australian participants in this study went overseas to undertake a postgraduate degree and gain further experience in score understanding, practicing, and contemporary art music repertoire. Typical destinations for Australian pianists were London, Europe, and the United States. Bartleet at al. (2019) suggest that migration and mobility play an important role in careers of Australian musicians as engagement with an international music scene generates more opportunities and greater career security:

I went to London to study at the Royal Academy of Music. Sometimes the lesson with [X] would be three lines of a piece, in three hours. But it was a time of intense learning and just putting my head down and locking myself away, but if I hadn’t had, I wouldn’t have the skills to last in the profession. (P15, M)

I went to study with [X] in Vienna. The scholarship that he brought to lessons, the insistence that we work with quality Urtext scores, including taking the trouble to read editorial notes at the back of the Urtext scores; notes which describe editorial policy, alternative versions, and textual discrepancies. It was very personalised and very expressive, yet still with respect for every dot, every phrase mark, every slur indication and an awareness of Classical Viennese culture. (P11, M)

When I came to [the USA] I discovered music by living composers, which I very much liked. I think the ground breaking of that was playing Boulez and after that, no rhythm was too difficult when you are trying to do that type of music. It just was a very new system for me and I quite liked that challenge. (P1, F)

In addition to raising the standard and broadening the experience of piano playing, overseas experience also assisted in developing academic and research skills, and nurtured musical sophistication. Research suggests that comprehensive musicianship helps to integrate all areas of music into a meaningful learning experience (Heavner, 2005):

I went to the US for a Master’s degree. I got a really thorough grounding in Schenkerian analysis, advanced theory, musical processes. I got a great education there, as well as research skills. (P2, F)

I was going once a week to Carnegie Hall hearing Pollini, Lupu, Perahia, and that is a great part of anybody’s musical development. Not only for how it’s done, but how it is not done as well; develop likes and dislikes, you develop your own taste. (P6, M)

In summary, reported higher education and postgraduate learning experiences included achieving a higher level of piano technique, expanding the knowledge of repertoire, more opportunities for collaborative playing and performance, overseas study, and developing academic/research skills. These achievements helped the participants transition from expert students to novice professionals, moving from competency toward expertise, and are in line with the second stage of Subotnik and Jarvin’s (2005) model.

From expertise to scholarly productivity/artistry: Building professional careers

On return to Australia after overseas study all pianists initially freelanced, creating their own portfolio careers. This included teaching piano in schools, part-time and casual positions in higher education (often teaching subjects other than piano), collaborative piano (orchestral, accompanying, répétiteur), examining piano performance, adjudicating competitions, and self-generated performance opportunities:

I used to play for ballet, I used to coach opera singers and I did everything. I had to do everything because I had two young children and they had to be fed. (P12, M)

I worked at a Grammar School for a little while and then I got a job at the Conservatorium teaching sight-reading. I also directed a Music Festival, which opened up a lot of avenues for me and introduced me to Australian music in a big way. (P4, F)

Research by Bartleet et al. (2019) confirmed that Australian musicians tend to work in multiple concurrent roles, that is, in a portfolio career. Participants’ comments indicate that contemporary art music and Australian repertoire played an important role in concerts with less emphasis on traditional repertoire—the opposite of what their tertiary performance studies often offered.

The participants identified a number of essential skills that helped them build their careers. These could be broadly divided into two categories: music skills and “people skills.” Music skills that were particularly useful for careers include the ability to learn new music quickly, flexibility in working across different genres and strong sight-reading skills. Sight-reading research suggests that expertise in this area is vital for collaborative music-making activities (Lehmann & Ericsson, 1996):

The ability to learn things quickly is certainly important, and the flexibility to be able to move across different styles or different situations, working with other instrumental combinations. (P3, F)

I’m sure the sight-reading was my bread and butter, that was really the core thing through all those 15 years of

freelancing. (P10, M)

Aside from music skills, other essential career skills were the ability to work well with different people and entrepreneurship:

It is about being able to get along with people, especially in chamber music where you might have two differing ideas and you have to find a way to get through or at least understand what somebody else has to say and be respectful as well. (P15, M)

I get along with people, with other staff, with students, I can see the other point of view. (P9, F)

On top of music, one has to be entrepreneurial, being friendly to people in the industry, forging relationships with people, forging connections, making the effort. (P2, F)

Participants’ reflections highlight the importance of working with differing views, getting along with people, and networking. Bartleet et al. (2019) highlight that entrepreneurship is a critical issue for musicians’ careers because they have to self-manage and create their own opportunities.

Summing up, building professional careers began with freelancing, and to create a portfolio career the pianists had to utilize a wide range of musical skills beyond their ability to play solo repertoire. Repertoire breadth has been flagged as a strong theme through this stage. In addition, “people skills” and entrepreneurship played a vital part in creating their own professional trajectory. These findings demonstrate motivation, resilience, and passion for music that helped the pianists build careers and illustrate the third stage of Subotnik and Jarvin’s (2005) model of moving from expertise to scholarly productivity/artistry.

Transition into the profession: Skills for current students

When asked to consider skills for classical careers needed by their current students, the participants highlighted four areas: creating a portfolio career, the need for diverse music skills, personal skills, and business skills.

All the participants agreed that current piano students would have portfolio careers in the future and would therefore need a wide range of skills to survive. Bartleet et al. (2019) suggest that Australian musicians will need to balance multiple concurrent roles to build sustainable portfolio careers:

They really need to have a portfolio career, need to be multi-skilled, and they need to be adaptable. Solo performers need to be equally adept at being solid, interactive chamber musicians as well a supportive accompanist or répétiteur. (P11, M)

One has to make up your own menu of a variety of activities, because solo playing is very important, not to lose touch with that, and then chamber music, and then accompanying and conducting. (P22, M)

All the respondents highlighted the importance of diverse musical skills beyond solid piano technique and knowledge of standard repertoire. In particular, flexibility in musical styles/genres and a breadth of repertoire, including contemporary art and popular music were cited. Researchers have been calling for classical musicians to include teaching, accompanying, gigs and similar activities in their skill set for over a decade (e.g., Bennett, 2016; Gordon, 2006):

They need to be multi-skilled and they need to know themselves, what they are truly good at, where their best talents lie and branch out a bit, sometimes into a related area. But they can’t just follow a very traditional path and have limited skills. (P5, F)

Being familiar with and able to work within a range of musical styles also makes one more employable. (P26, F)

Personal skills flagged as essential included flexibility, ability to learn quickly, hard work, persistence, and building relationships. Positive personal traits have been highlighted by Beeching (2012) as vital for 21st-century music careers:

Students who are flexible and are quite quick and have a really good attitude about trying anything and doing anything will still succeed, and others who just want to sit and practise their pieces won’t. (P14, F)

Having the ability to withstand disappointment, constantly being in an environment where you can reinvent yourself if necessary and having a big personality. (P17, F)

Playing music is all about your relationships with other people, and how they inspire you or encourage you or give you opportunities. (P24, F)

The participants thought that today’s students would need strong business and promotional skills, and Bartleet et al. (2019) highlight enterprise and entrepreneurship competency as essential factors in sustaining portfolio careers:

You’re not just an artist, you’re running a business and it’s yourself that you’re promoting, and you’re in the entertainment business. (P17, F)

Students have to build a network, they have to have social skills, they need to know the profession and they need to be good business people. Being a musician in today’s world is so much a matter of being more than just a musician. (P21, M)

In summary, all respondents suggested that transitioning into the profession requires piano students to replicate skills that helped their teachers build successful careers, such as creating a portfolio career, diverse music skills, personal skills, and entrepreneurship. In addition, today’s musicians are also required to have sophisticated digital skills to manage the internet, social media, and generate global connectivity with their audience (Bartleet et al., 2019).

Table 1 synthesizes how our findings map to the SP/A model. It demonstrates the similarities and differences between a theoretical model and real-life experience which is more fluid, with greater focus on transition between stages and the skills acquired during this journey rather than factors contributing to the achievement of a particular stage. We also highlight the importance of transition into the music profession and the additional skills current undergraduates need to develop to build successful music careers.