This review addresses the problems associated with various types of implants, providing a brief background on their challenges and surgical implications. Preclinical and clinical studies are discussed to understand the causes of implant failures. The review specifically examines the potential of magnesium-based alloys in biomedical applications, focus on existing research to offer a comprehensive overview of their advantages and disadvantages in biodegradable implants. It explores how alloying elements can enhance mechanical properties and corrosion behavior in Mg alloys. This review indicates how specific percentages of different alloying elements, combined with suitable manufacturing and post-processing techniques, can yield optimized results. Additionally, the review assesses the impact of magnesium alloy degradation on the healing process and suggests strategies to mitigate adverse effects. By thoroughly analyzing the literature, this paper offers valuable insights into fabricating magnesium-based implants to achieve ideal mechanical and corrosion properties, enhancing their effectiveness in biomedical applications.
MiglioriniFGiorginoRHildebrandF, et al. Fragility fractures: Risk factors and management in the elderly. Medicina (Lithuania)2021; 57: 1119.
6.
StoneKEwingSLuiL, et al.Self-reported sleep and nap habits and risk of falls and fractures in older women: the study of osteoporotic fractures. J Am Geriatr Soc2013; 54: 1177–1183.
7.
Colón-EmericCKennethGS. Osteoporotic fractures in older adults. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol2006; 20: 695–706.
8.
PietschmannPRaunerMSiposW, et al.Osteoporosis: an age-related and gender-specific disease–a mini-review. Gerontologia Clinica, karger.com2009; 55: 3–12.
9.
WilliamsSADaigleSGWeissR, et al.Economic burden of osteoporosis-related fractures in the US medicare population. Ann Pharmacother2021; 55: 821–829.
10.
RousculpMDLongSRWangS, et al.Economic burden of osteoporosis-related fractures in medicaid. Value Health2007; 10: 144–152.
11.
ZengYLouAZhongZ, et al.Timely delivery of bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells based on the inflammatory pattern of bone injury environment to promote the repair of calvarial bone defects in rats: an optimized strategy for bone tissue engineering. J Tissue Eng2024; 15: 20417314241252960.
12.
McCaldenRWMcGeoughJABarkerMB, et al.Age-related changes in the tensile properties of cortical bone. The relative importance of changes in porosity, mineralization, and microstructure. J Bone Joint Surg Am1993; 75: 1193–205.
13.
ZengRDietzelWWitteF, et al.Progress and challenge for magnesium alloys as biomaterials. Adv Eng Mater2008; 10: B3–14.
14.
Eddy Jai PoinernGBrundavanamSFawcettD. Biomedical magnesium alloys: a review of material properties, surface modifications and potential as a biodegradable orthopaedic implant. Am J Biomed Eng2013; 2: 218–240.
AndersonJMMillerKM. Biomaterial biocompatibility and the macrophage. The Biomaterials: Silver Jubilee Compendium. 1984; 5: 5–10.
17.
TangLThevenotPHuW. Surface chemistry influences implant biocompatibility. Curr Top Med Chem2008; 8: 270–280.
18.
NgICPawijitPTanJ, et al.Anatomy and physiology for biomaterials research and development. Encyclopedia of Biomedical Engineering2019; 1–3: 225–236.
19.
KulinetsI. Biomaterials and their applications in medicine. Regulatory Affairs for Biomaterials and Medical Devices. 2015: 1–10. Published online January 1, 2015. doi: https://doi.org/10.1533/9780857099204.1
20.
YaszemskiMRatnerBD. Introduction to Biology and Medicine—Key Concepts in the Use of Biomaterials in Surgery and Medical Devices. Elsevier. 2023: 643–644. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816137-1.00041-6
21.
BurgeRDawson-HughesBSolomonDH, et al.Incidence and economic burden of osteoporosis-related fractures in the United States, 2005-2025. J Bone Miner Res2007; 22: 465–475.
22.
Montoya-GarcíaMJGinerMMarcosR, et al.Fragility fractures and imminent fracture risk in the spanish population: a retrospective observational cohort study. J Clin Med2021; 10: 1–11.
23.
BorgströmFSobockiPStrömO, et al.The societal burden of osteoporosis in Sweden. Bone2007; 40: 1602–1609.
24.
KatzJN. Total joint replacement in osteoarthritis. Best Pract Res Clin Rheumatol2006; 20: 145–153.
25.
CoomberRPorteousMHubbleM, et al.Total hip replacement for hip fracture: surgical techniques and concepts. Injury2022; 47: 2060–2064.
26.
Bannister G. Primary total hip replacement. The Surgeon2003; 1: 332–341.
27.
AgrawalTVermaAK. Cross sectional study of osteoporosis among women. Medical Journal Armed Force India2023; 69: 168–171.
28.
PothiwalaPEvansEMChapman-NovakofskiKM. Ethnic variation in risk for osteoporosis among women: a review of biological and behavioral factors. J Womens Health2006; 15: 709–719.
29.
RinonapoliGRuggieroC. Osteoporosis in men: a review of an underestimated bone condition.International Journal of Molecular Sciences2023; 22: 2105.
30.
ZakiMEHussienFHEl BannaRAES. Osteoporosis among ancient Egyptians. Int J Osteoarchaeol2009; 19: 78–89.
31.
MerlottiDMingianoCValentiR, et al. Bone fragility in gastrointestinal disorders. Int J Mol Sci2022; 23: 2713.
32.
Van Der StokJVan LieshoutEMMEl-MassoudiY, et al.Bone substitutes in The Netherlands - A systematic literature review. Acta Biomater2011; 7: 739–750.
33.
ArchunanMWPetronisS. Bone Grafts in Trauma and Orthopaedics. Cureus2021; 13: 17705.
34.
AsprayTJHillTR. Osteoporosis and the ageing skeleton. Subcell Biochem2019; 91: 453–476.
35.
LuDYCheJYShenZM, et al.Osteoporosis treatments for old people. EC Orthopeadicis2019; 10: 278–280.
36.
JohnellKFastbomJ. Undertreatment of osteoporosis in the oldest old? A nationwide study of over 700,000 older people. Arch Osteoporos2009; 4: 17–23.
37.
HuCYYoonTR. Recent updates for biomaterials used in total hip arthroplasty. Biomater Res2018; 22: 33.
38.
PrakasamMLocsJSalma-AncaneK, et al.Biodegradable materials and metallic implants-A review. J FunctBiomater2017; 8: 44.
39.
AdhikariJSahaPSinhaA. Surface modification of metallic bone implants—polymer and polymer-assisted coating for bone in-growth. Fundamental Biomaterials: Metals2018: 299–321. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-102205-4.00014-3
SerdaMBeckerFGClearyM, et al. In: BalintGAntalaBCartyC, et al. (eds) The adult hip: hip arthroplasty surgery: third edition. Alphen aan den Rijn, Netherlands (Global) and Philadelphia, United States (corporate): Wolters Kluwer Health Adis (ESP), 2015, vol.7, pp.343–354. doi:https://doi.org/10.2/JQUERY.MIN.JS.
42.
DunnJSBellairsREdeDA, et al.Anatomy. A regional atlas of the human body. J Anat1987; 155: 214–215. PMCID: PMC1261894.
43.
MadsenMSRitterMAMorrisHH, et al.The effect of total hip arthroplasty surgical approach on gait. J Orthop Res2004; 22: 44–50.
44.
RuggieroASiciliaA. Lubrication modeling and wear calculation in artificial hip joint during the gait. Tribol Int2020; 142: 105993.
45.
BottaiVDell’OssoGCelliF. Total hip replacement in osteoarthritis: the role of bone metabolism and its complications.Clin Cases Miner Bone Metab2015; 12: 247–250.
46.
NasiriMBoneYL. Study of sex differences in the association between hip fracture risk and body parameters by DXA-based biomechanical modeling. Bone2016; 90: 90–98.
47.
Starup-LindeJFrostMVestergaardP, et al.Epidemiology of fractures in diabetes. Calcif Tissue Int2017; 100: 109–121.
48.
AffatatoSRuggieroAMerolaM. Advanced biomaterials in hip joint arthroplasty. A review on polymer and ceramics composites as alternative bearings. Compos B Eng2015; 83: 276–283.
49.
GoswamiCBhatIKBathulaS, et al.Physico-mechanical and surface wear assessment of magnesium oxide filled ceramic composites for hip implant application. Silicon2019; 11: 39–49.
50.
LinYJSuTYangL, et al.Mixed bacterial-fungal infection following total hip arthroplasty: a case report. Chinese Journal of Traumatology - English Edition2022; 25: 32–36.
MazzoliAGermaniMRaffaeliR. Direct fabrication through electron beam melting technology of custom cranial implants designed in a PHANToM-based haptic environment. Mater Des2009; 30: 3186–3192.
53.
SalyerKETaylorDP. Bone grafts in craniofacial surgery. Craniomaxillofac Trauma Reconstr2009; 2: 25.
54.
DurhamSMcCombJNeurosurgeryML. Correction of Large (>25 cm2 ) Cranial Defects with “Reinforced” Hydroxyapatite Cement: Technique and Complications.Neurosurgery2003; 52: 842–845.
55.
DucicY. Titanium mesh and hydroxyapatite cement cranioplasty: a report of 20 cases. J Oral Maxillofac Surg2002; 60: 272–276.
56.
NaujokatHSeitzJAçilY, et al.Osteosynthesis of a cranio-osteoplasty with a biodegradable magnesium plate system in miniature pigs. Acta biomaterialia2017; 62: 434–445.
57.
HwangSOChangLS. Salvage of an exposed cranial prosthetic implant using a transposition flap with an indwelling antibiotic irrigation system. Arch Craniofac Surg2020; 21: 73–76.
58.
DuttaSPassiDSinghP. Risks and complications associated with dental implant failure: Critical update. Natl J Maxillofac Surg2020; 11: 14–19.
59.
RuggieroADe StefanoM. On the biotribological surfaces of dental implants: investigation in the framework of osseointegration. Biotribology2023; 35–36: 100254.
60.
MischCEQuZBidezMW. Mechanical properties of trabecular bone in the human mandible: implications for dental implant treatment planning and surgical placement. J Oral Maxillofac Surg 1999; 56: 700–706.
61.
BräggerUBrunskiJCarrAB. Quality of dental implants. Int J Prosthodont2004; 17: 607–641.
MiolaMBrunoMMainaG, et al.Antibiotic-free composite bone cements with antibacterial and bioactive properties. A preliminary study. Mater Sci Eng C Mater Biol Appl2014; 43: 65–75.
64.
NabloBJRothrockARRothrockMH. Nitric oxide-releasing sol–gels as antibacterial coatings for orthopedic implants. Biomaterials2005; 26: 917–924.
65.
MeiSYangLPanY, et al. Influences of tantalum pentoxide and surface coarsening on surface roughness, hydrophilicity, surface energy, protein adsorption and cell responses to PEEK based. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces2019; 174: 207–215.
66.
MeiSWangHWangW, et al. Antibacterial effects and biocompatibility of titanium surfaces with graded silver incorporation in titania nanotubes. Biomaterials2014; 35: 4255–4265.
67.
ZhouPXiaYChengX, et al. Enhanced bone tissue regeneration by antibacterial and osteoinductive silica-HACC-zein composite scaffolds loaded with rhBMP-2. Biomaterials2014; 35: 10033–10045.
68.
SinghKMohanSKonovalovS, et al.Effect of nano-hydroxyapatite and post heat treatment on biomedical implants by sol-gel and HVOF spraying. Nanomaterials for Sustainable Tribology2023: 257–285. Published online February 2, 2023. doi:https://doi.org/10.1201/9781003306276-16
69.
RobinsonDAGriffithRWShechtmanD, et al.In vitro antibacterial properties of magnesium metal against Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Staphylococcus aureus. Acta Biomaterialia2010; 6: 1869–1877.
70.
MassaMACovarrubiasCBittnerM. Synthesis of new antibacterial composite coating for titanium based on highly ordered nanoporous silica and silver nanoparticles. Mater Sci Eng C2014; 45: 146–153.
71.
LiuJLiFLiuC, et al.Effect of Cu content on the antibacterial activity of titanium-copper sintered alloys. Mater Sci Eng C2014; 35: 392–400.
72.
GremillardLMeilleSChevalierJ,et al. Degradation of bioceramics. 1. Business Media New York: Degradation of Implant Materials, 2012.
73.
HermanssonEF. Evaluation of in vitro bioactivity of different types of biomaterials. European Cells and Materials2006; 11: 40.
74.
MarianMBermanDNečasD, et al.Roadmap for 2D materials in biotribological/biomedical applications – A review. Adv Colloid Interface Sci2022; 307: 102747.
75.
QiSWuJXuY, et al.Chemical stability and antimicrobial activity of plasma-sprayed cerium oxide-incorporated calcium silicate coating in dental implants. Implant Dent2019; 28: 564–570.
76.
UrishKLGioriNJLemonsJE, et al.Trunnion corrosion in total hip arthroplasty—basic concepts. Orthop Clin North Am2019; 50: 281–288.
77.
Gradzka-DahlkeMDabrowskiJRDabrowskiB. Characteristic of the porous 316 stainless steel for the friction element of prosthetic joint. Wear2007; 263: 1023–1029.
78.
KatoKYamamotoAOchiaiS, et al.Cytocompatibility and mechanical properties of novel porous 316 L stainless steel. Mater Sci Eng C2013; 33: 2736–2743.
79.
Sabadin BertolLKindlein JúniorWPinto Da SilvaF, et al.Medical design: direct metal laser sintering of Ti-6Al-4 V. Mater Des2010; 31: 3982–3988.
80.
RuggieroAD’AmatoRGómezE, et al.Experimental comparison on tribological pairs UHMWPE/TIAL6V4 alloy, UHMWPE/AISI316L austenitic stainless and UHMWPE/AL2O3 ceramic, under dry and lubricated conditions. Tribol Int2016; 96: 349–360.
81.
PriyadarshiniBRamaMChetan, et al.Bioactive coating as a surface modification technique for biocompatible metallic implants: a review. J Asian Ceram Soc2019; 7: 397–406.
82.
GandolfiMGZampariniFDegli EspostiM, et al.Polylactic acid-based porous scaffolds doped with calcium silicate and dicalcium phosphate dihydrate designed for biomedical application. Mater Sci Eng C2018; 82: 163–181.
83.
YildirimOSAksakalBCelikH, et al.An investigation of the effects of hydroxyapatite coatings on the fixation strength of cortical screws. Med Eng Phys2005; 27: 221–228.
84.
JeongJKimJHShimJH, et al.Bioactive calcium phosphate materials and applications in bone regeneration. Biomater Res2019; 23: 4.
85.
KochBWolkeJGCde GrootK. X-ray diffraction studies on plasma-sprayed calcium phosphate-coated implants. J Biomed Mater Res1990; 24: 655–667.
86.
CookSDWeinsteinAMSanderTA, et al.Retention characteristics of porous rooted co-cr-mo alloy dental implants. Biomater Med Devices Artif Organs2009; 10: 123–146.
87.
LiveraniEFortunatoALeardiniA, et al.Fabrication of Co-Cr-Mo endoprosthetic ankle devices by means of Selective Laser Melting (SLM). Mater Des2016; 106: 60–68.
88.
ByadretdinovaMAIvanovaRGIofisNA, et al.Artificial heart valve made of Co-Cr-W-Ni alloy. Biomed Eng (NY)1986; 20: 21–24.
89.
ThompsonIDHcnchLL. Mechanical properties of bioactive glasses, glass-ceramics and composites. Proc Inst Mech Eng H1998; 212: 127–136.
90.
BrauerDS. Bioactive glasses - structure and properties. AngewandteChemie - International Edition2015; 54: 4160–4181.
91.
GreenspanDC. Bioactive ceramic implant materials. Curr Opin Solid State Mater Sci1999; 4: 389–393.
92.
ViteriVSdFuentesEViteriVSd, et al.Titanium and Titanium Alloys as Biomaterials. Tribology - Fundamentals and Advancements. 2013; 1: 154–181.
93.
MillisDL. Responses of musculoskeletal tissues to disuse and remobilization. Canine Rehabilitation and Physical Therapy2004: 113–159. Published online 2004. doi:10.1016/B978-0-7216-9555-6.50011-5. 2004
94.
AmelinckxHVVan DyckDvan LanduytJ, et al.Handbook of microscopy: applications in materials science, solid-state physics and chemistry. Practical Metallography1997; 34: 589–591.
95.
BanerjeePCAl-SaadiSChoudharyL, et al.Magnesium implants: Prospects and challenges. Materials (Basel)2019; 12: 136.
96.
AntoniacIMiculescuMMănescuV, et al.Magnesium-Based alloys used in orthopedic surgery. Materials (Basel)2022; 15: 1148.
XuYMengHYinH, et al.Quantifying the degradation of degradable implants and bone formation in the femoral condyle using micro-CT 3D reconstruction. Exp Ther Med2018; 15: 93–102.
99.
NiinomiMLiuYNakaiM, et al.Biomedical titanium alloys with young’s moduli close to that of cortical bone. Regen Biomater2016; 3: 173–185.
100.
WilliamsD. New interests in magnesium. Med Device Technol2006; 17: 9–10.
101.
BoudeauNLiksonovDBarriereT, et al.Composite based on polyetheretherketone reinforced with carbon fibres, an alternative to conventional materials for femoral implant: manufacturing process. Materials & Design2012; 40: 148–156.
102.
GoiKButlerDJarforsA, et al.Elastic modulus of sintered porous Ti–Si–Zr, using activation by Ti–Si mechanically alloyed powder and TiH2 powder. Mater Sci Eng2008; 475: 45–51.
ManoJFSilvaGAAzevedoHS, et al. Natural origin biodegradable systems in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine: present status and some moving trends. J R Soc Interface2007; 4: 999–1030.
105.
TavaresDdSCastroLDOSoaresGdA, et al.Synthesis and cytotoxicity evaluation of granular magnesium substituted β-tricalcium phosphate. J Appl Oral Sci2013; 21: 37–42.
106.
NussKMRRechenbergBv. Biocompatibility issues with modern implants in bone - A review for clinical orthopedics. Open Orthop J2008; 2: 66–78.
107.
Nyrén O, McLaughlin JK, Gridley G, Cancer risk after hip replacement with metal implants: a population-based cohort study in Sweden. J Natl Cancer Inst1997; 87: 28–33.
108.
SignorelloLBYeWFryzekJP, et al.Nationwide study of cancer risk among hip replacement patients in Sweden. J Natl Cancer Inst2001; 93: 1405–1410.
109.
MäkeläKTVisuriTPulkkinenP, et al.Cancer incidence and cause-specific mortality in patients with metal-on-metal hip replacements in Finland. Acta Orthop2014; 85: 32–38.
110.
HailerYDKärrholmJErikssonN, et al.Similar risk of cancer in patients younger than 55 years with or without a total hip arthroplasty (THA): a population- based cohort study on 18,771 exposed to THA and 87,683 controls. Acta Orthop2022; 93: 317–326.
111.
PrattNLCicuttiniFMWangY, et al.No increased risk of cancer associated with metal-on-metal or ceramic-on-ceramic procedures compared to other bearing surfaces in patients with total hip arthroplasty: a nationwide linked registry cohort analysis of 167,837 patients. PLoS One2022; 17: e0278241.
112.
EliazN. Corrosion of metallic biomaterials: a review. Materials (Basel)2019: 12: 407.
113.
HamanakaHYoneyamaT. Corrosion of metallic biomaterial. Corros Eng Sci1989; 38: 333–339.
114.
SezerNEvisZKayhanSM, et al.Review of magnesium-based biomaterials and their applications. J Magnes Alloy2018; 6: 23–43.
115.
DuyguluOKayaRAOktayG, et al.Investigation on the potential of magnesium alloy AZ31 as a bone implant. Mater Sci Forum2007; 546-549: 421–424.
116.
SionkowskaA. Current research on the blends of natural and synthetic polymers as new biomaterials: review. Progress in Polymer Science (Oxford)2011; 36: 1254–1276.
117.
KalirajanCDukleANathanaelAJ, et al.A Critical Review on Polymeric Biomaterials for Biomedical Applications. Polymers (Basel)2021; 13: 3015.
al AlawiAMMajoniSWFalhammarH.Magnesium and Human Health: Perspectives and Research Directions. Int J Endocrinol2018; 2018: 9041694.
120.
VolpeSL. Magnesium in disease prevention and overall health. Adv Nutr2013; 4: 378S–383S.
121.
ZreiqatHstellaMNissanB. The effect of surface chemistry modification of titanium alloy on signalling pathways in human osteoblasts. Biomaterials2005; 26: 7579–7589.
122.
SarisNMervaalaEKarppanenH, et al.Magnesium: an update on physiological, clinical and analytical aspects. Clinica Chimica Acta2000; 294: 1–26.
123.
RondanelliMFalivaMATartaraA, et al.An update on magnesium and bone health. Biometals2021; 34: 15–36.
124.
HaghshenasM. Mechanical characteristics of biodegradable magnesium matrix composites: a review. J Magnes Alloy2017; 5: 189–201.
125.
Al-SherifyZFDawoodNMKhuliefZT. Review about the corrosion behavior of magnesium alloys for biomedical applications. AIP Conf Proc2022; 2450: 26–27.
126.
YunYHDongZYangD, et al.Biodegradable Mg corrosion and osteoblast cell culture studies. Mater Sci Eng C2009; 29: 1814–1821.
127.
WolfFICittadiniA. Chemistry and biochemistry of magnesium. Mol Aspects Med2003; 24: 3–9.
128.
RadhaRSreekanthD. Insight of magnesium alloys and composites for orthopedic implant applications – a review. J Magnes Alloy2017; 5: 286–312.
129.
TsakirisVTardeiCClicinschiFM. Biodegradable Mg alloys for orthopedic implants – A review. J Magnes Alloy2021; 9: 1884–1905.
130.
LiuDYangDLiX, et al.Mechanical properties, corrosion resistance and biocompatibilities of degradable Mg-RE alloys: a review. J Mater Res Technol2019; 8: 1538–1549.
131.
WanPTanLYangK. Surface modification on biodegradable magnesium alloys as orthopedic implant materials to improve the bio-adaptability: a review. J Mater Sci Technol2016; 32: 827–834.
132.
Asaduzzaman ChowdhuryMHelal HossainMDHossainN, et al.Advances in coatings on Mg alloys and their anti-microbial activity for implant applications. Arab J Chem2022; 15: 104214.
133.
VahidgolpayeganiAWenC, et al. Production methods and characterization of porous Mg and Mg alloys for biomedical applications. Elsevier. doi:10.1016/B978-0-08-101289-5.00002-0. 2017.
134.
LewisGLewisG. Reduction in the corrosion rate of magnesium and magnesium alloy specimens and implications for plain fully bioresorbable coronary artery stents: a review. World J Eng2016; 4: 597–597.
135.
WaksmanRErbelRDi MarioC, et al.Early- and long-term intravascular ultrasound and angiographic findings after bioabsorbable magnesium stent implantation in human coronary arteries. JACC Cardiovasc Interv2009; 2: 312–320.
SongCLiuLDengZ, et al.Research progress on the design and performance of porous titanium alloy bone implants. J Mater Res Technol2023; 23: 2626–2641.
138.
AbrahamAMVenkatesanS. A review on application of biomaterials for medical and dental implants. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,Part L: Journal of Materials: Design and Applications. 2023; 237: 249–273.
139.
GonzalezJHouRQNidadavoluEPS, et al.Magnesium degradation under physiological conditions – best practice. Bioact Mater2018; 3: 174–185.
140.
DemishteinKReifenRShemeshM. Antimicrobial properties of magnesium open opportunities to develop healthier food. Nutrients2019; 11: 2363.
141.
EmelyanenkoAMDomantovskyAGKaminskyVV, et al.The mechanisms of antibacterial activity of magnesium alloys with extreme wettability. Materials2021; 14: 5454.
142.
Schmidt-BleekKKweeBJMooneyDJ, et al. Boon and bane of inflammation in bone tissue regeneration and its link with angiogenesis. Tissue Eng Part B Rev2015; 21: 354–364.
143.
ZhangYXuJRuanYC, et al.Implant-derived magnesium induces local neuronal production of CGRP to improve bone-fracture healing in rats. Nat Med2016; 22: 1160–1169.
144.
CiprianoAFSalleeATayobaM, et al.Cytocompatibility and early inflammatory response of human endothelial cells in direct culture with Mg-Zn-Sr alloys. Acta Biomater2017; 48: 499–520.
145.
SchumacherSRothIStahlJ, et al.Biodegradation of metallic magnesium elicits an inflammatory response in primary nasal epithelial cells. Acta Biomater2014; 10: 996–1004.
146.
WildemannBIgnatiusALeungF, et al. Non-union bone fractures. Nature Reviews Disease Primers2021; 7: 1–21.
147.
WangNYangSShiH, et al.Magnesium alloys for orthopedic applications: a review on the mechanisms driving bone healing. J Magnes Alloy2022; 10: 3327–3353.
148.
Nasr AzadaniMZahediABowotoOK, et al.A review of current challenges and prospects of magnesium and its alloy for bone implant applications. Prog Biomater2022; 11: 1–26.
149.
KarageorgiouVKaplanD. Porosity of 3D biomaterial scaffolds and osteogenesis. Biomaterials2005; 26: 5474–5491.
150.
YokoyamaKIchikawaTMurakamiH, et al.Fracture mechanisms of retrieved titanium screw thread in dental implant. Biomaterials2002; 23: 2459–2465.
151.
GilFJPlanellJAPadrósA, et al.The effect of shot blasting and heat treatment on the fatigue behavior of titanium for dental implant applications. Dental Materials2006; 23: 486–491.
152.
LautenschlagerEPMonaghanP. Titanium and titanium alloys as dental materials. Int Dent J1993; 43: 245–253.
153.
ZinelisSThomasASyresK, et al.Surface characterization of zirconia dental implants. Dental materials2010; 26: 295–305.
154.
KawaharaH. Cellular responses to implant materials: biological, physical and chemical factors. International dental journal1983; 33: 350–375. PMID: 6581129.
155.
LemonsJE. Dental implant biomaterials. J Am Dent Assoc1990; 121: 716–719.
156.
SykarasNIacopinoA. Implant materials, designs, and surface topographies: their effect on osseointegration. International Journal of Oral & Maxillofacial Implants2000; 15: 675–690. PMID: 11055135
157.
GuéhennecLLSoueidanALayrolleP, et al. Surface treatments of titanium dental implants for rapid osseointegration. Dental materials2007; 23: 844–854.
158.
science GSC. Control of biodegradation of biocompatable magnesium alloys. Corrosion science2007; 49: 1696–1701.
159.
LiZGuXLouS, et al. The development of binary Mg–Ca alloys for use as biodegradable materials within bone. Biomaterials2008; 29: 1329–1344.
160.
ZhangSZhangXZhaoC, et al. Research on an Mg–Zn alloy as a degradable biomaterial. Acta biomaterialia2022; 6: 626–640.
161.
ZhangEYinDXuL, et al.Microstructure, mechanical and corrosion properties and biocompatibility of Mg-Zn-Mn alloys for biomedical application. Mater Sci Eng C2009; 29: 987–993.
162.
XuLYuGZhangE, et al.In vivo corrosion behavior of Mg-Mn-Zn alloy for bone implant application. J Biomed Mater Res A2007; 83: 703–711.
163.
KannanMBiomaterialsRR. In vitro degradation and mechanical integrity of calcium-containing magnesium alloys in modified-simulated body fluid. Biomaterials2008; 29: 2306–2314.
164.
DuyguluOKayaROktayG, et al.Investigation on the potential of magnesium alloy AZ31 as a bone implant. Trans Tech Pub2023; 546: 421–424.
165.
YangJXCuiFZLeeIS, et al.In vivo biocompatibility and degradation behavior of Mg alloy coated by calcium phosphate in a rabbit model. J Biomater Appl2012; 27: 153–164.
166.
ChengYQinTWangH, et al.Comparison of corrosion behaviors of AZ31, AZ91, AM60 and ZK60 magnesium alloys. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China2023; 19: 517–524.
167.
SongGBowlesAStJohnDH. Corrosion resistance of aged die cast magnesium alloy AZ91D. Materials Science and Engineering: A2003; 366: 74–86.
168.
YanSWangZZhangZ, et al.Effect of samarium on microstructure and corrosion resistance of aged as-cast AZ92 magnesium alloy. Journal of Rare Earths2014; 32: 663–671.
169.
GuoMCaoLLuP, et al.Anticorrosion and cytocompatibility behavior of MAO/PLLA modified magnesium alloy WE42. J Mater Sci Mater Med2011; 22: 1735–1740.
170.
ZhaLLiuYCaoL, et al.Effects of Surface Modification on Biocompatibility of Magnesium Alloy WE42. Tianjin Medical Journal2023; 12: 26–28. ID: wpr-600342.
171.
LuPCaoLLiuY, et al.Evaluation of magnesium ions release, biocorrosion, and hemocompatibility of MAO/PLLA-modified magnesium alloy WE42. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater2011; 96B: 101–109.
172.
LevorovaJDuskovaJDrahosM, et al.In vivo study on biodegradable magnesium alloys: bone healing around WE43 screws. J Biomater Appl2018; 32: 886–895.
173.
ByunSHLimHKCheonKH, et al.Biodegradable magnesium alloy (WE43) in bone-fixation plate and screw. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater2020; 108: 2505–2512.
174.
TorroniAWitekLFahliogullariHP, et al.WE43 And WE43-T5 Mg alloys screws tested in-vitro cellular adhesion and differentiation assay and in-vivo histomorphologic analysis in an ovine model. Journal of Biomaterials Applications2020; 35: 901–911.
175.
GhasemiARajaVBlawertC, et al. Study of the structure and corrosion behavior of PEO coatings on AM50 magnesium alloy by electrochemical impedance spectroscopy. Surface and Coatings Technology2008; 202: 3513–3518.
176.
KadiriHXueYHorstemeyerM, et al.Identification and modeling of fatigue crack growth mechanisms in a die-cast AM50 magnesium alloy. Acta Materialia2023; 54: 5061–5076.
177.
DanaieMAsmussenRMJakupiP, et al.The role of aluminum distribution on the local corrosion resistance of the microstructure in a sand-cast AM50 alloy. Corrosion Science2013; 77: 151–163.
178.
WangREliezerAGutmanEM. An investigation on the microstructure of an AM50 magnesium alloy. Mater Sci Eng2023; 355: 201–207.
179.
BarilGBlancCPébèreN. AC Impedance spectroscopy in characterizing time-dependent corrosion of AZ91 and AM50 magnesium alloys characterization with respect to their microstructures. J Electrochem Soc2001; 148: B489.
180.
CanalesJJCorbalánRMontoliuC, et al.Aluminium impairs the glutamate-nitric oxide-cGMP pathway in cultured neurons and in rat brain in vivo: molecular mechanisms and implications for neuropathology. J Inorg Biochem2001; 87: 63–69.
181.
LuckeyTDVenugopalB. Metal toxicity in mammals. Volume 1. Physiologic and chemical basis for metal toxicity. 1, New York, NY: Plenum Press, 1977, pp. 1–37. Physiologic and Chemical Basis for Metal ToxicityPublished online 1977.
182.
CuiXYangYLiuE, et al. Corrosion behaviors in physiological solution of cerium conversion coatings on AZ31 magnesium alloy. Appl Surf Sci2023; 257: 9703–9709.
183.
KannanMBRamanRS. In vitro degradation and mechanical integrity of calcium-containing magnesium alloys in modified-simulated body fluid. Biomaterials2022; 29: 2306–2314.
184.
SerreCMPapillardMChavassieuxP, et al.Influence of magnesium substitution on a collagen–apatite biomaterial on the production of a calcifying matrix by human osteoblasts. J Biomed Mater Res2022; 42: 626–633.
185.
BirbilisNStaigerMPKirklandNT, et al.A survey of bio-corrosion rates of magnesium alloys. Corrosion science2009. Elsevier2009; 52: 287–291.
RadHIdrisMKadirM, et al. Microstructure analysis and corrosion behavior of biodegradable Mg–Ca implant alloys. Materials & Design2012; 33: 88–97.
188.
IlichJZKerstetterJE. Nutrition in bone health revisited: a story beyond calcium. J Am Coll Nutr2000; 19: 715–737.
189.
VannucciLFossiCQuattriniS, et al.Calcium Intake in Bone Health: A Focus on Calcium-Rich Mineral Waters. Nutrients2018; 10: 1930.
190.
StipanukMHStipanukMHCaudillMA. Biochemical, Physiological, and Molecular Aspects of Human Nutrition. 4. USA: Elsevier health sciences, 2018.
191.
SerreCMPapillardMChavassieuxP, et al.Influence of magnesium substitution on a collagen–apatite biomaterial on the production of a calcifying matrix by human osteoblasts. J Biomed Mater Res1998; 42: 626–633.
192.
YamaguchiM. Role of nutritional zinc in the prevention of osteoporosis. Molecular and cellular biochemistry2010; 338: 241–254.
193.
O’ConnorJPKanjilalDTeitelbaumM, et al.Zinc as a Therapeutic Agent in Bone Regeneration. Materials (Basel)2020; 13: 2211.
194.
Campos BecerraLHHernández RodríguezMALEsquivel SolísH, et al.Bio-inspired biomaterial Mg-Zn-Ca: A review of the main mechanical and biological properties of Mg-based alloys. Biomed Phys Eng Express2020; 6: 042001.
195.
NagataMLönnerdalB. Role of zinc in cellular zinc trafficking and mineralization in a murine osteoblast-like cell line. J Nutr Biochem2022; 22: 172–178.
196.
PostJIEiblJKRossGM. Zinc induces motor neuron death via a selective inhibition of brain-derived neurotrophic factor activity. Amyotroph Lateral Scler2008; 9: 149–155.
197.
SojkaJE. Magnesium supplementation and osteoporosis. Nutr Rev1995; 53: 71–74.
GrynpasMDMariePJ. Effects of low doses of strontium on bone quality and quantity in rats. Bone1990; 11: 313–319.
200.
LandiESprioSSandriM, et al.Development of Sr and CO3 co-substituted hydroxyapatites for biomedical applications. Acta Biomaterialia2008; 4: 656–663.
201.
ReginsterJYSeemanEvernejoulMC. Strontium ranelate reduces the risk of nonvertebral fractures in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis: Treatment of Peripheral Osteoporosis (TROPOS) study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab2005; 90: 2816–2822.
202.
MeunierPJRouxCOrtolaniS, et al.Effects of long-term strontium ranelate treatment on vertebral fracture risk in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis. Osteoporos Int2009; 20: 1663–1673.
203.
GentlemanEFredholmYCJellG, et al.The effects of strontium-substituted bioactive glasses on osteoblasts and osteoclasts in vitro. Biomaterials2010; 31: 3949–3956.
204.
LandiETampieriACelottiG. Sr-substituted hydroxyapatites for osteoporotic bone replacement. Acta biomaterialia2007; 3: 961–969.
205.
WuCRamaswamyYKwikD, et al.The effect of strontium incorporation into CaSiO3 ceramics on their physical and biological properties. Biomaterials2007; 28: 3171–3181.
206.
GuoDXuKZhaoX, et al.Development of a strontium-containing hydroxyapatite bone cement. Biomaterials2005; 26: 4073–4083.
207.
LiYLiQZhuS, et al.The effect of strontium-substituted hydroxyapatite coating on implant fixation in ovariectomized rats. Biomaterials2010; 31: 9006–9014.
208.
FanYWuG. Effect of strontium on mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of AZ91D. Mater Sci Forum2007; 546-549: 567–570.
209.
KimWKimJLeeJ, et al. Influence of Ca on the corrosion properties of magnesium for biomaterials. Mater Lett2008; 62: 4146–4148.
210.
LiZGuXLouS, et al.The development of binary Mg–Ca alloys for use as biodegradable materials within bone. Biomaterials2008; 29: 1329–1344.
211.
ZhangSLiJSongY, et al.In vitro degradation, hemolysis and MC3T3-E1 cell adhesion of biodegradable Mg-Zn alloy. Mater Sci Eng C2009; 29: 1907–1912.
212.
HarandiSEHasbullah IdrisMJafariH. Effect of forging process on microstructure, mechanical and corrosion properties of biodegradable mg-1Ca alloy. Mater Des2011; 32: 2596–2603.
213.
KoleiniSIdrisM. Influence of hot rolling parameters on microstructure and biodegradability of Mg–1Ca alloy in simulated body fluid. Materials & Design2012; 33: 20–25.
214.
CaiSLeiTLiN, et al.Effects of Zn on microstructure, mechanical properties and corrosion behavior of Mg-Zn alloys. Mater Sci Eng C2012; 32: 2570–2577.
215.
GuXXieXLiN, et al.In vitro and in vivo studies on a Mg–Sr binary alloy system developed as a new kind of biodegradable metal. Acta Biomater2012; 8: 2360–2374.
216.
BornapourMMujaNShum-TimD, et al. Biocompatibility and biodegradability of Mg–Sr alloys: The formation of Sr-substituted hydroxyapatite. Acta Biomater2013; 9: 5319–5330.
217.
SeyedraoufiZSMirdamadiS. Synthesis, microstructure and mechanical properties of porous Mg-Zn scaffolds. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater2013; 21: 1–8.
218.
Bakhsheshi-RadHRHamzahEMedrajM, et al.Effect of heat treatment on the microstructure and corrosion behaviour of Mg-Zn alloys. Mater Corros2014; 65: 999–1006.
219.
JeongYScienceWKC. Enhancement of mechanical properties and corrosion resistance of Mg–Ca alloys through microstructural refinement by indirect extrusion.Corros Sci2014; 82: 392–403.
220.
YanYCaoHKangY, et al.Effects of Zn concentration and heat treatment on the microstructure, mechanical properties and corrosion behavior of as-extruded Mg-Zn alloys produced by powder metallurgy. J Alloys Compd2017; 693: 1277–1289.
221.
ZhaoCPanFZhangL, et al.Microstructure, mechanical properties, bio-corrosion properties and cytotoxicity of as-extruded Mg-Sr alloys. Mater Sci Eng C2017; 70: 1081–1088.
222.
WangYTieDGuanR, et al.Microstructures, mechanical properties, and degradation behaviors of heat-treated Mg-Sr alloys as potential biodegradable implant materials. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater2018; 77: 47–57.
223.
DongJHTanLLRenY, et al.Effect of microstructure on corrosion behavior of Mg–Sr alloy in Hank’s solution. Acta MetallurgicaSinica (English Letters)2019; 32: 305–320.
224.
XuLZhangEYinD, et al.In vitro corrosion behaviour of Mg alloys in a phosphate buffered solution for bone implant application. J Mater Sci Mater Med2008; 19: 1017–1025.
225.
DuHWeiZLiuX, et al.Effects of Zn on the microstructure, mechanical property and bio-corrosion property of Mg–3Ca alloys for biomedical application. Mater Chem Phys2011; 125: 568–575.
226.
XuZSmithCChenS, et al.Development and microstructural characterizations of Mg-Zn-Ca alloys for biomedical applications. Mater Sci Eng B Solid State Mater Adv Technol2011; 176: 1660–1665.
227.
ZhangBHouYWangX, et al.Mechanical properties, degradation performance and cytotoxicity of Mg-Zn-Ca biomedical alloys with different compositions. Mater Sci Eng C2011; 31: 1667–1673.
228.
BerglundISBrarHSDolgovaN, et al.Synthesis and characterization of Mg-Ca-Sr alloys for biodegradable orthopedic implant applications. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater2012; 100B: 1524–1534.
229.
BrarHSWongJManuelMV. Investigation of the mechanical and degradation properties of Mg–Sr and Mg–Zn–Sr alloys for use as potential biodegradable implant materials. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater2012; 7: 87–95.
230.
YinPLiNFLeiT, et al.Effects of Ca on microstructure, mechanical and corrosion properties and biocompatibility of Mg-Zn-Ca alloys. J Mater Sci Mater Med2013; 24: 1365–1373. doi: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10856-013-4856-y
231.
LiHLiuDZhaoY, et al.The Influence of Zn Content on the Corrosion and Wear Performance of Mg-Zn-Ca Alloy in Simulated Body Fluid. J Mater Eng Perform2016; 25: 3890–3895.
232.
LiMHePWuY, et al. Stimulatory effects of the degradation products from Mg-Ca-Sr alloy on the osteogenesis through regulating ERK signaling pathway. Sci Rep2016; 6: 32323.
233.
JiangWCiprianoATianQ, et al.In vitro evaluation of MgSr and MgCaSr alloys via direct culture with bone marrow derived mesenchymal stem cells. Acta Biomaterialia2018; 72: 407–423.
234.
DingPLiuYHeX, et al.In vitro and in vivo biocompatibility of Mg–Zn–Ca alloy operative clip. Bioact Mater2019; 4: 236–244.
235.
BaiHHeXDingP, et al.Fabrication, microstructure, and properties of a biodegradable Mg-Zn-Ca clip. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater2019; 107: 1741–1749.
236.
ChenKXieXTangH, et al.In vitro and in vivo degradation behavior of Mg–2Sr–Ca and Mg–2Sr–Zn alloys. Bioact Mater2020; 5: 275–285.
237.
KhanSMiyashitaYMutohY, et al. Influence of Mn content on mechanical properties and fatigue behavior of extruded Mg alloys. Materials Science and Engineering: A2006; 420: 315–321.
238.
BoehlertCJKnittelK. The microstructure, tensile properties, and creep behavior of Mg–Zn alloys containing 0–4.4 wt.% Zn. Mater Sci Eng A2006; 417: 315–321.
239.
ZhangJWangJQiuX, et al. Effect of Nd on the microstructure, mechanical properties and corrosion behavior of die-cast Mg–4Al-based alloy. Journal of Alloys and Compounds2008; 464: 556–564.
240.
OkamotoHOkamotoH. Desk Handbook Phase Diagrams for Binary Alloys Second Edition. Desk Handbook: Phase Diagrams for Binary Alloys, Second Edition (#57751G). Published online 2010. Accessed October 23, 2022. www.asminternational.org.
241.
ZhouYLiY. Effects of Nd on the microstructures, mechanical properties and in vitro corrosion behavior of cast Mg-1Mn-2Zn-xNd alloys.Materials Transactions2015; 56: 253–258.
242.
YamasakiMHayashiNIzumiS, et al.Corrosion behavior of rapidly solidified Mg-Zn-rare earth element alloys in NaCl solution. Corros Sci2007; 49: 255–262.
243.
KubásekJVojtěchD. Structural characteristics and corrosion behavior of biodegradable Mg–Zn, Mg–Zn–Gd alloys. J Mater Sci: Mater Med2013; 24: 1615–1626.
244.
ZhangYLiJLiJ. Effects of microstructure transformation on mechanical properties, corrosion behaviors of Mg-Zn-Mn-Ca alloys in simulated body fluid. J Mech Behav Biomed Mater2018; 80: 246–257.
245.
ZhangEYangL. Microstructure, mechanical properties and bio-corrosion properties of Mg–Zn–Mn–Ca alloy for biomedical application. Mater Sci Eng A2008; 497: 111–118.
246.
ChangJWDuoJXiangYZ, et al.Influence of Nd and Y additions on the corrosion behaviour of extruded Mg-Zn-Zr alloys. Int. J Miner Metall Mater2011; 18: 203–209.
247.
Bakhsheshi-RadHRIdrisMHAbdul-KadirMR, et al.Mechanical and bio-corrosion properties of quaternary Mg–Ca–Mn–Zn alloys compared with binary Mg–Ca alloys. Materials & Design2014; 53: 283–292.
248.
ZhouYLiYLuoD, et al.Microstructures, mechanical and corrosion properties and biocompatibility of as extruded Mg–Mn–Zn–Nd alloys for biomedical applications. Mater Sci Eng C2015; 49: 93–100.
249.
HeGWuYZhangY, et al. Addition of Zn to the ternary Mg–Ca–Sr alloys significantly improves their antibacterial properties. J Mater Chem B2015; 3: 6676–6689.
250.
PanHPangKCuiF, et al. Effect of alloyed Sr on the microstructure and corrosion behavior of biodegradable Mg-Zn-Mn alloy in Hanks’ solution. Corros Sci2019; 157: 420–437.
251.
ZhangXDaiJDongQ, et al.Corrosion behavior and mechanical degradation of as-extruded Mg–Gd–Zn–Zr alloys for orthopedic application. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater2020; 108: 698–708.
252.
KavianiMEbrahimiGREzatpourHR. Improving the mechanical properties and biocorrosion resistance of extruded Mg-Zn-Ca-Mn alloy through hot deformation. Mater Chem Phys2023; 234: 245–258.
253.
WeiLLiJZhangY, et al. Effects of Zn content on microstructure, mechanical and degradation behaviors of Mg-xZn-0.2 Ca-0.1 Mn alloys. Mater Chem Phys2020; 241: 122441.
254.
MengXJiangZZhuS, et al. Effects of Sr addition on microstructure, mechanical and corrosion properties of biodegradable Mg–Zn–Ca alloy. J Alloys Compd2020; 838: 155611.
255.
FanWBaiYLiG, et al.Enhanced mechanical properties and formability of hot-rolled Mg–Zn–Mn alloy by Ca and Sm alloying. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China (English Edition)2022; 32: 1119–1132.
256.
PrasadhSGuptaMWongR. In vitro cytotoxicity and osteogenic potential of quaternary Mg-2Zn-1Ca/X-Mn alloys for craniofacial reconstruction. Sci Rep2022; 12: 8259.
257.
HanPChengPZhangS, et al.In vitro and in vivo studies on the degradation of high-purity Mg (99.99 wt.%) screw with femoral intracondylar fractured rabbit model. Biomaterials2015; 64: 57–69.
258.
LeeJWHanHSHanKJ, et al.Long-term clinical study and multiscale analysis of in vivo biodegradation mechanism of Mg alloy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A2016; 113: 716–721.
259.
GuanXXiongMZengF, et al.Enhancement of osteogenesis and biodegradation control by brushite coating on Mg-Nd-Zn-Zr alloy for mandibular bone repair. ACS Appl Mater Interfaces2014; 6: 21525–21533.
260.
LiZGuXLouS, et al. The development of binary Mg–Ca alloys for use as biodegradable materials within bone. Biomaterials2008; 29: 1329–1344.
261.
KrausTFischerauerSFHänziAC, et al.Magnesium alloys for temporary implants in osteosynthesis: in vivo studies of their degradation and interaction with bone. Acta Biomater2012; 8: 1230–1238.
262.
FischerauerSFKrausTWuX, et al.In vivo degradation performance of micro-Arc-oxidized magnesium implants: a micro-CT study in rats. Acta Biomater2013; 9: 5411–5420.
263.
ChenSGuanSLiW, et al.In vivo degradation and bone response of a composite coating on Mg-Zn-Ca alloy prepared by microarc oxidation and electrochemical deposition. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater2012; 100B: 533–543.
264.
ZhaoDHuangSLuF, et al.Vascularized bone grafting fixed by biodegradable magnesium screw for treating osteonecrosis of the femoral head. Biomaterials2016; 81: 84–92.
265.
ChenLLinZWangM, et al.Treatment of trauma-induced femoral head necrosis with biodegradable pure Mg screw-fixed pedicle iliac bone flap. J OrthopTranslat2019; 17: 133–137.
266.
SunYZhangBWangY, et al. Preparation and characterization of a new biomedical Mg–Zn–Ca alloy. Materials & Design2012; 34: 58–64.
267.
GuiZKangZLiY. Mechanical and corrosion properties of Mg-Gd-Zn-Zr-Mn biodegradable alloy by hot extrusion. J Alloys Compd2016; 685: 222–230.
268.
LiZChenMLiW, et al.The synergistic effect of trace Sr and Zr on the microstructure and properties of a biodegradable Mg-Zn-Zr-Sr alloy. J Alloys Compd2017; 702: 290–302.
269.
DingTYanHChenJ, et al.Dynamic recrystallization and mechanical properties of high-strain-rate hot rolled Mg–5Zn alloys with addition of Ca and Sr. Transactions of Nonferrous Metals Society of China (English Edition)2019; 29: 1631–1640.
270.
DambattaMSIzmanSKurniawanD, et al.Influence of thermal treatment on microstructure, mechanical and degradation properties of Zn-3Mg alloy as potential biodegradable implant material. Mater Des2015; 85: 431–437.
271.
DambattaMIzmanS. Processing of Zn-3Mg alloy by equal channel angular pressing for biodegradable metal implants. Journal of King Saud University-Science2017; 29: 455–461.
272.
MostaedESikora-JasinskaM. Novel Zn-based alloys for biodegradable stent applications: Design, development and in vitro degradation. Journal of the mechanical behavior of biomedical materials2016; 60: 581–602.
273.
YangYXiongXChenJ, et al.Research advances in magnesium and magnesium alloys worldwide in 2020. Journal of Magnesium and Alloys2021; 9: 705–747.
274.
WalkeSKaleVMPatilPP, et al. Effects of alloying element on the mechanical behavior of Mg-MMCs: A review. Mater Today Proc2023. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/J.MATPR.2023.02.211
275.
OlugbadeTOOmiyaleBOOjoOT. Corrosion, corrosion fatigue, and protection of magnesium alloys: mechanisms, measurements, and mitigation. J Mater Eng Perform2022; 31: 1707–1727.
276.
RoufSRainaAIrfan Ul HaqM, et al.3D Printed parts and mechanical properties: influencing parameters, sustainability aspects, global market scenario, challenges and applications. Adv Ind Eng Polym Res2022; 5: 143–158.
277.
MalikAUl HaqMIRainaA, et al.3D Printing towards implementing industry 4.0: sustainability aspects, barriers and challenges. Ind Robot2022; 49: 491–511.
278.
RoufSMalikASinghN, et al.Additive manufacturing technologies: industrial and medical applications. Sustainable Operations and Computers2022; 3: 258–274.
