In secular Western societies, individuals often embark on an autonomous quest for meaning in life, which, however, can lead to frustration. In contrast, many East Asian ethical leaders draw on age-old teachings to find fulfillment—an underexplored topic that merits further investigation. By analyzing ancient Confucian tenets and the discourses of modern Confucian leaders, this paper unveils three key aspects of the Confucian meaning of life: The Heavenly Way (the comprehension that good begets good), the Heavenly Mandate (the purpose of doing good), and the Heavenly Nature (the significance of one’s inherent goodness). From a psychological perspective, this “Confucian meaning framework” has persisted for millennia because its elements not only exhibit internal consistency and structural robustness but also fulfill humanity’s psychological needs for meaningfulness, transcendence, justice, self-improvement, competence, altruism, relatedness, morality, moral autonomy, and self-esteem. Therefore, ancient Confucian wisdom effectively counters the contemporary existential vacuum in modern East Asia. This paper highlights the crucial role of cultural heritage in our existential quests, opening new avenues for blending philosophical insights with psychological research. It also illustrates the power of psychological theories to explain the lasting influence of certain ancient cultures on modern life, demonstrating the intriguing interplay between culture and psychology.
AllanB. A.Batz-BarbarichC.SterlingH. M.TayL. (2019). Outcomes of meaningful work: A meta-analysis. Journal of Management Studies, 56(3), 500–528. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12406
3.
ArcherM. S. (2005). Structure, culture and agency. In JacobsM. D.HanrahanN. W. (Eds.), The Blackwell companion to the sociology of culture (pp. 17–34). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470996744.ch2
ChanW.-T. (1963). A source book in Chinese philosophy. Princeton University Press.
6.
Ch’enK. (1968). Filial piety in Chinese Buddhism. Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies, 28, 81–97. https://doi.org/10.2307/2718595
7.
ChouS. C.-M. (2024a). Beyond reach but within sight: Ethical leaders’ pursuit of seemingly unattainable role models in East Asia. Journal of Business Ethics. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-024-05659-2
8.
ChouS. C.-M. (2024b). The journey from unrealistic to realistic optimism: Ancient Confucian wisdom in modern business practice. Culture & Psychology. https://doi.org/10.1177/1354067x241232109
9.
ChouS. C.-M. (in press). The Confucian Heaven-dynamic model: The antecedent process of Confucian ethical leadership. Journal of Organization and Management. (in Chinese).
EllardJ. H.HarveyA.CallanM. J. (2016). The justice motive: History, theory, and research. In SabbaghC.SchmittM. (Eds.), Handbook of social justice theory and research (pp. 127–143). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-3216-0_7
13.
FestingerL. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford University Press.
14.
FischerR. (2016). Justice and culture. In SabbaghC.SchmittM. (Eds.), Handbook of social justice theory and research (pp. 459–475). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-3216-0_25
15.
FiskeS. T. (2018). Social beings: Core motives in social psychology (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
16.
FranklV. E. (1959). From death-camp to existentialism: A psychiatrist’s path to a new therapy. Beacon Press.
17.
FranklV. E. (1963). Man’s search for meaning: An introduction to logotherapy. Washington Square Press.
18.
FranklV. E. (1967). Psychotherapy and existentialism: Selected papers on logotherapy. Simon & Schuster.
19.
FridensonP.KikkawaT. (2017). Ethical capitalism: Shibusawa Eiichi and business leadership in global perspective. University of Toronto Press.
GollwitzerM.van ProoijenJ.-W. (2016). Psychology of justice. In SabbaghC.SchmittM. (Eds.), Handbook of social justice theory and research (pp. 61–82). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-3216-0_4
23.
GollwitzerP. M. (2012). Mindset theory of action phases. In LangeP. A. M. V.KruglanskiA. W.HigginsE. T. (Eds.), Handbook of theories of social psychology (Vol. 1, pp. 526–546). Sage. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249215.n26
24.
HaidtJ. (2012). The righteous mind: Why good people are divided by politics and religion. Vintage.
HeineS.ProulxT.VohsK. (2006). The meaning maintenance model: On the coherence of social motivations. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10(2), 88–110. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327957pspr1002_1
27.
HeintzelmanS. J.KingL. A. (2014). The feeling of) meaning-as-information. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 18(2), 153–167. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868313518487
28.
HertleinK. M.WeeksG. R. (2017). The logical and clinical argument for the concept of meta-schema in cognitive therapy. Journal of Family Psychotherapy, 28(1), 4–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/08975353.2017.1283150
29.
HochschildJ. P. (2021). John Paul II’s gamble with ‘the meaning of life. Studia Gilsoniana, 10(3), 491–515. https://doi.org/10.26385/SG.100320
HwangK.-K. (2015a). Culture-Inclusive theories of self and social interaction: The approach of multiple philosophical paradigms. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 45(1), 40–63. https://doi.org/10.1111/jtsb.12050
32.
HwangK.-K. (2015b). Cultural system vs. pan-cultural dimensions: Philosophical reflection on approaches for indigenous psychology. Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour, 45(1), 2–25. https://doi.org/10.1111/jtsb.12051
33.
HwangK.-K. (2018). Chinese cultural healing: Confucianism and Daoism. In FernandoS.MoodleyR. (Eds.), Global psychologies: Mental health and the global south (pp. 151–161). Palgrave Macmillan UK. https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-349-95816-0_9
34.
InamoriK. (2009). A compass to fulfillment: Passion and spirituality in life and business. McGraw Hill.
35.
InamoriK. (2020). From zero to Kyocera. PHP Institute.
36.
InamoriK. (2022). Dream small, win big: Life lessons from Japan’s preeminent business philosopher. PHP Institute.
KawamotoT. (2020). The moderating role of attachment style on the relationship between self-concept clarity and self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences, 152, 109604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.109604
42.
KimR.SeachrisJ. W. (2018). Confucius and the meaning of life. In LeachS.TartagliaJ. (Eds.), The meaning of life and the great philosophers (pp. 1–9). Routledge.
LernerM. J.MillerD. T. (1978). Just world research and the attribution process: Looking back and ahead. Psychological Bulletin, 85(5), 1030–1051. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.85.5.1030
MartelaF.StegerM. (2016). The three meanings of meaning in life: Distinguishing coherence, purpose, and significance. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 11(5), 531–545. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2015.1137623
MaslowA. H. (1969). The farther reaches of human nature. Journal of Transpersonal Psychology, 1(1), 1–9.
50.
McKnightP. E.KashdanT. B. (2009). Purpose in life as a system that creates and sustains health and well-being: An integrative, testable theory. Review of General Psychology, 13(3), 242–251. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0017152
51.
NietzscheF. (1887). The gay science: With a prelude in rhymes and an appendix of songs. Vintage.
52.
NisbettR. E. (2003). The geography of thought: How Asians and Westerners think differently ... and why. Free Press.
53.
ParackaD. J.PynnT. (2024). What the I Ching can teach us about peaceful equanimity in a rapidly changing world. Peace & Change, 49(1), 34–50. https://doi.org/10.1111/pech.12638
54.
ParkN.ParkM.PetersonC. (2010). When is the search for meaning related to life satisfaction?Applied Psychology: Health and Well-Being, 2(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1758-0854.2009.01024.x
PrenticeM.JayawickremeE.HawkinsA.HartleyA.FurrR. M.FleesonW. (2019). Morality as a basic psychological need. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 10(4), 449–460. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550618772011
RekerG. T.WongP. T. P. (1988). Aging as an individual process: Toward a theory of personal meaning. In BirrenJ. E.BengtsonV. L. (Eds.), Emergent theories of aging (pp. 214–246). Springer Publishing Company.
60.
RicheyJ. L. (2015). Society and culture: Confucianism in East Asia today. In PrescottA. (Ed.), East Asia in the world (pp. 174–184). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315717340
61.
RicheyJ. L. (2023). Confucianism and “confucianism”: Describing and problematizing the tradition. In Oldstone-MooreJ. (Ed.), The oxford handbook of confucianism (pp. 3–19). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780190906184.013.1
62.
RyanR. M.DeciE. L. (2017). Self-determination theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation, development, and wellness. The Guilford Press. https://doi.org/10.1521/978.14625/28806
63.
RyffC. D. (1989). Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 57(6), 1069–1081. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.57.6.1069
64.
SartreJ.-P. (1944). No exit. Vintage Press.
65.
SchnellT. (2011). Individual differences in meaning-making: Considering the variety of sources of meaning, their density and diversity. Personality and Individual Differences, 51(5), 667–673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2011.06.006
66.
SengeP. M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. Century.
67.
ShibusawaE. (1985). Rongo to soroban. Kokushokankokai, Inc. (in Japanese).
68.
ShinJ. Y.StegerM. (2014). Promoting meaning and purpose in life. In ParksA. C.SchuellerS. M. (Eds.), The Wiley Blackwell handbook of positive psychological interventions (pp. 90–110). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118315927.ch5
69.
StegarM. F. (2012). Experiencing meaning in life: Optimal functioning at the nexus of well-being, psychopathology, and spirituality. In WongP. T. P. (Ed.), The human quest for meaning: Theories, research, and applications (2nd ed.) (pp. 165–184). Routledge.
70.
StegerM. F. (2009). Meaning in life. In LopezS. J.SnyderC. R. (Eds.), Oxford handbook of positive psychology (2nd ed., pp. 679–687). Oxford University Press.
71.
StegerM. F. (2013). Wrestling with our better selves: The search for meaning in life. In MarkmanK. D.ProulxT.LindbergM. J. (Eds.), The psychology of meaning (pp. 215–233). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/14040-011
72.
StegerM. F. (2018). Meaning in life: A unified model. In SnyderC. R.LopezS. J.EdwardsL. M.MarquesS. C. (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of positive psychology (pp. 959–967). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199396511.013.56
73.
StegerM. F.FrazierP.OishiS.KalerM. (2006). The meaning in life questionnaire: Assessing the presence of and search for meaning in life. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(1), 80–93. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.53.1.80
74.
StegerM. F.KawabataY.ShimaiS.OtakeK. (2008). The meaningful life in Japan and the United States: Levels and correlates of meaning in life. Journal of Research in Personality, 42(3), 660–678. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2007.09.003
75.
Van BurenH. J.SyedJ.MirR. (2019). Religion as a macro social force affecting business: Concepts, questions, and future research. Business & Society, 59(5), 799–822. https://doi.org/10.1177/0007650319845097
76.
WilsonK. G.MurrellA. R. (2004). Values work in acceptance and commitment therapy: Setting a course for behavioral treatment. In HayesS. C.FolletteV. M.LinehanM. M. (Eds.), Mindfulness and acceptance: Expanding the cognitive-behavioral tradition (pp. 120–151). The Guilford Press.
77.
YehK.-H. (2023). Constructing indigenous psychological theories from a global perspective: Taking filial piety model as an example. Review of General Psychology, 27(3), 275–281. https://doi.org/10.1177/10892680231152191
78.
ZhouJ. (2022). The origins of Westernization thought. In ZhouJ. (Ed.), Westernization movement and early thought of modernization in China: Pragmatism and changes in society, 1860s–1900s (pp. 309–337). Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-86985-4_17
