In this article, I attempt to clarify the relationships among three contemporary concepts that are often used interchangeably or conflated in the literature: anti-establishment politics, political outsiders and populism. In order to make sense of these manifestations of public discontent, I argue that one must examine the nature of political appeals, political actors' locations vis-à-vis the party system and the linkages between citizens and government. Doing so, furthermore, helps clarify the meaning of populism, one of the most elusive concepts in political science. The definition of populism I offer allows us to synthesize much of the literature on the subject while weeding out unnecessary and secondary characteristics. Importantly, too, this definition allows us to separate competing claims of `direct democracy' and thus populists from non-populists.
Ansell, Christopher K. and M. Steven Fish (1999) `The Art of Being Indispensable: Noncharismatic Personalism in Contemporary Political Parties', Comparative Political Studies32: 2.
2.
Barney, Darin David and David Laycock (1999) `Right-Populists and Plebiscitarian Politics in Canada', Party Politics5: 3.
3.
Canovan, Margaret (1981) Populism. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich.
4.
Canovan, Margaret (2002) `Taking Politics to the People: Populism as the Ideology of Democracy', in Yves Mény and Yves Surel (eds) Democracies and the Populist Challenge. New York: Palgrave.
5.
Conniff, Michael L. (1999) `Introduction', in Michael L. Conniff (ed.) Populism in Latin America. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press .
6.
Corbett, John G. (1980) `Linkage as Manipulation: The Partido Revolucionario Institucional in Mexico', in Kay Lawson (ed.) Political Parties and Linkage: A Comparative Perspective. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
7.
de la Torre, Carlos (2000) Populist Seduction in Latin America. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press.
8.
di Tella, Torcuato S. (1965) `Populism and Reform in Latin America', in Claudio Véliz (ed.) Obstacles to Change in Latin America. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
9.
Dix, Robert H. (1985) `Populism: Authoritarian and Democratic', Latin American Research Review20: 2.
10.
Germani, Gino (1978) Authoritarianism, Fascism, and National Populism . Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books .
11.
Goodwyn, Lawrence (1976) Democratic Promise: The Populist Moment in America . Oxford: Oxford University Press .
12.
Gunther, Richard and Larry Diamond (2003) `Species of Political Parties', Party Politics9(2): 167-99.
13.
Hayward, Jack (1996) `The Populist Challenge to Élitist Democracy in Europe', in Jack Hayward (ed.) Élitism, Populism, and European Politics. Oxford : Clarendon Press.
14.
Hennessy, Alistair (1969) `Latin America', in Ghita Ionescu and Ernest Gellner (eds) Populism: Its Meaning and National Characteristics. New York: Macmillan.
15.
Horowitz, Joel (1999) `Populism and Its Legacies in Argentina', in Michael L. Conniff (ed.) Populism in Latin America. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press.
16.
Ignazi, Piero (1996) `The Intellectual Basis of Right-Wing Anti-Partyism' , European Journal of Political Research29(3): 279-96.
17.
Ionescu, Ghita and Ernest Gellner (1969) `Introduction', in Ghita Ionescu and Ernest Gellner (eds) Populism: Its Meaning and National Characteristics. New York: Macmillan.
18.
Kenney, Charles D. (1998) `Anti-politicians, Outsiders and Party Politics: New Conceptual Strategies and Empirical Evidence from Peru', Party Politics4: 1.
19.
Keren, Michael (2000) `Political Perfectionism and the "Anti-System" Party', Party Politics6: 1.
20.
Kitschelt, Herbert (2000) `The Linkages Between Citizens and Politicians in Democratic Politics', Comparative Political Studies33: 6-7.
21.
Kitschelt, Herbert (2002) `Popular Dissatisfaction with Democracy: Populism and Party Systems', in Yves Mény and Yves Surel (eds) Democracies and the Populist Challenge. New York: Palgrave.
22.
Kitschelt, Herbert and Anthony McGann (1995) The Radical Right in Western Europe. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
23.
Knight, Alan (1998) `Populism and Neo-populism in Latin America, Especially Mexico', Journal of Latin American Studies30: 2.
24.
Laclau, Ernesto (1977) Politics and Ideology in Marxist Theory. London: Verso.
25.
Lawson, Kay (1980) `Political Parties and Linkage', in Kay Lawson (ed.) Political Parties and Linkage: A Comparative Perspective. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
26.
Lawson, Kay (1988) `When Linkage Fails', in Kay Lawson and Peter H. Merkl (eds) When Parties Fail: Emerging Alternative Organizations. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
27.
Laycock, David (1990) Populism and Democratic Thought in the Canadian Prairies, 1910 to 1945. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
28.
Laycock, David (2002) The New Right and Democracy in Canada. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
29.
Levitsky, Steven (2003) `From Labor Politics to Machine Politics: The Transformation of Party-Union Linkages in Argentine Peronism, 1983-1999', Latin American Research Review38: 3.
30.
MacRae, Donald (1969) `Populism as an Ideology', in Ghita Ionescu and Ernest Gellner (eds) Populism: Its Meaning and National Characteristics . New York: Macmillan.
31.
Mainwaring, Scott (2006) `The Crisis of Representation in the Andes', Journal of Democracy17: 3.
32.
Mayorga, René Antonio (1995) Antipolítica y Neopopulismo. La Paz: CEBEM.
33.
Mayorga, René Antonio (2006) `Outsiders and Neopopulism: The Road to Plebiscitarian Democracy', in Scott Mainwaring (ed.) The Crisis of Democratic Representation in the Andes. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press .
34.
McMath, Robert C., Jr. (1992) American Populism: A Social History, 1877-1898. New York: Hill and Wang .
35.
Mény, Yves and Yves Surel (2002) `The Constitutive Ambiguity of Populism', in Yves Mény and Yves Surel (eds) Democracies and the Populist Challenge . New York: Palgrave.
36.
Mouzelis, Nicos (1985) `On the Concept of Populism: Populist and Clientelist Modes of Incorporation in Semiperipheral Polities', Politics & Society14.
37.
O'Donnell, Guillermo (1994) `Delegative Democracy', Journal of Democracy5: 1.
38.
Panfichi, Aldo (1997) `The Authoritarian Alternative: "Anti-Politics" in the Popular Sectors of Lima', in Douglas Chalmers et al. (eds) The New Politics of Inequality in Latin America: Rethinking Participation and Representation. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
39.
Poguntke, Thomas (1996) `Anti-party Sentiment - Conceptual Thoughts and Empirical Evidence: Explorations into a Minefield', European Journal of Political Research29.
40.
Roberts, Kenneth M. (1995) `Neoliberalism and the Transformation of Populism in Latin America', World Politics48: 1.
41.
Roberts, Kenneth M. (2002) `Party-Society Linkages and Democratic Representation in Latin America', Canadian Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Studies27: 53.
42.
Roberts, Kenneth M. (2003) `Populist Mobilization and Political Organization in Latin America: Historical and Contemporary Variations'. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Latin American Studies Association, Dallas.
43.
Roberts, Kenneth M. (2006) `Populism, Political Conflict, and Grass-Roots Organization in Latin America', Comparative Politics38: 2.
44.
Sartori, Giovanni (1976) Parties and Party Systems: A Framework for Analysis . New York: Cambridge University Press.
45.
Scarrow, Susan E. (1996) `Politicians Against Parties: Anti-Party Arguments as Weapons for Change in Germany', European Journal of Political Research29(3): 297-317.
46.
Schedler, Andreas (1996a) `Anti-Political Establishment Parties', Party Politics2: 3.
47.
Schedler, Andreas (ed.) (1996b) The End of Politics? Explorations into Modern Antipolitics. New York: St. Martin's Press.
48.
Stein, Steve (1980) Populism in Peru: The Emergence of the Masses and the Politics of Social Control. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
49.
Taggart, Paul (2002) `Populism and the Pathology of Representative Politics' , in Yves Mény and Yves Surel (eds) Democracies and the Populist Challenge . New York: Palgrave.
50.
Tarchi, Marco (2002) `Populism Italian Style', in Yves Mény and Yves Surel (eds) Democracies and the Populist Challenge. New York: Palgrave.
51.
Weber, Max (1964) The Theory of Social and Economic Organization . New York: Free Press.
52.
Weyland, Kurt (1999) `Neoliberal Populism in Latin America and Eastern Europe', Comparative Politics31: 4.
53.
Weyland, Kurt (2000) `A Paradox of Success? Determinants of Political Support for President Fujimori', International Studies Quarterly44: 3.
54.
Weyland, Kurt (2001) `Clarifying a Contested Concept: Populism in the Study of LatinAmerican Politics', Comparative Politics34: 1.
55.
Wiles, Peter (1969) `A Syndrome, Not a Doctrine: Some Elementary Theses on Populism', in Ghita Ionescu and Ernest Gellner (eds) Populism: Its Meaning and National Characteristics. New York: Macmillan.
