Cultural events are endorsed in urban cultural policy for their economic role in supporting the tourism industry and their social role in strengthening community cohesion. Nevertheless, conflicts can arise between these two objectives, especially in cities already experiencing massive tourism regardless of the staging of major events. Taking Venice as a case study, we investigate the effects that different types of cultural events have on the relationship between residents and tourists in a crowding-in/temporary crowding-out dynamic. We implement a structural equation model using a unique dataset that records the daily number of residents, tourists, day visitors and commuters in the city. Results show evidence of both a crowding-in and temporary crowding-out effect during major cultural events, whereas such effects are not present for cultural events associated with local traditions. The paper highlights how these dynamics can impact the economy and the management of tourism destinations during cultural events.
AhasRAasaAMarkÜ, et al. (2007) Seasonal tourism spaces in Estonia: case study with mobile positioning data. Tourism Management28(3): 898–910.
3.
AltunE (2022) The Dichotomy of Overtourism: How Did Venice Become Venice?. Venice, Italy: Università Ca' Foscari Venezia.
4.
AnderssonTDArmbrechtJLundbergE (2012) Estimating use and non-use values of a music festival. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism12(3): 215–231.
5.
AndresLGrésillonB (2013) Cultural brownfields in European cities: a new mainstream object for cultural and urban policies. International Journal of Cultural Policy19(1): 40–62.
6.
Antonio RiveraMHaraTKockG (2008) Economic impact of cultural events: the case of the Zora! Festival. Journal of Heritage Tourism3(2): 121–137.
7.
ArbaraSD’AutiliaR (2021) A population game model for the expansion of Airbnb in the city of Venice. Sustainability13(7): 3829.
8.
BassoMFavaFFregolentL (2023) Resisting Venice: individual and collective housing practices to stay put in the tourist city. Journal of Cultural Geography40: 1–23.
9.
BelliniNGoFMPasquinelliC (2016) Urban Tourism and City Development: Notes for an Integrated Policy Agenda Tourism in the City. Berlin: Springer International Publishing, 333–339.
10.
BertocchiDFerriC (2021) Far from gentrification and touristification? Residents’ perceptions of displacement on Murano Island. Shima15(1): 186–205.
11.
BertocchiDCamattiNGioveS, et al. (2020) Venice and overtourism: simulating sustainable development scenarios through a tourism carrying capacity model. Sustainability12(2): 512.
12.
BertocchiDCamattiNvan der BorgJ (2021) Tourism peaks on the three peaks. Using big data to monitor where, when and how many visitors impact the dolomites UNESCO world heritage site. Rivista Geografica Italiana3: 59–81.
13.
BertrandG (2020) Venice carnival from the middle ages to the twenty-first century: a political ritual turned “consumer rite”. Journal of Festive Studies2(1): 77–104.
14.
BilleTSchulzeGG (2006) Culture in urban and regional development. Handbook of the Economics of Art and Culture1: 1051–1099.
15.
BilleTStormHN (2021) Local development policy: do new culture houses have an impact on migration? The case of Norway. European Planning Studies29(8): 1556–1577.
16.
BorgesAPRodriguesPMatiasA (2016) Customer satisfaction and expenditure behaviour in musical festivals: the optimus primavera sound case study. Tourism Economics22(4): 825–836.
17.
BorowieckiKJCastiglioneC (2014) Cultural participation and tourism flows: an empirical investigation of Italian provinces. Tourism Economics20(2): 241–262.
18.
BracalenteBChirieleisonCCossignaniM, et al. (2011) The economic impact of cultural events: the Umbria Jazz music festival. Tourism Economics17(6): 1235–1255.
19.
Bringas-RábagoNLToudertD (2023) Quality, expenditure, and loyalty in a cultural event: a longitudinal study. International Journal of Tourism Cities, ahead-of-print.
20.
CampostriniSFiorinF (2021) The governance of innovation in Venice: past, present, future - La governance dell’innovazione a Venezia: passato, presente, futuro. Rivista italiana di Public management4(1): 104–129.
21.
CanestrelliECostaP (1991) Tourist carrying capacity: a fuzzy approach. Annals of Tourism Research18(2): 295–311.
22.
CavalloLCerastiEDi TorriceM, et al. (2022) Exploring mobile network data for tourism statistics: the collaboration between Istat and Vodafone Business Italia. In: Rivista Di Statistica Ufficiale3(1972–4829): 43–76.
23.
ChaoCCHazariBRLaffargueJP, et al. (2006) Tourism, Dutch disease and welfare in an open dynamic economy. The Japanese Economic Review57: 501–515.
24.
CheungKSYiuCY (2023) Unfolding touristification in retail landscapes: evidence from rent gaps on high street retail. Tourism Geographies25(4): 1224–1250.
25.
ChirieleisonCMontroneAScruccaL (2020) Event sustainability and sustainable transportation: a positive reciprocal influence. Journal of Sustainable Tourism28(2): 240–262.
26.
Cocola-GantA (2018) Tourism gentrification. In: Handbook of Gentrification Studies. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing, 281–293.
27.
ColdwellW (2017) First Venice and Barcelona: now anti-tourism marches spread across Europe. The Guardian10: 2017.
28.
CostaPVan Der BorgJ (1988) Un modello lineare per la programmazione del turismo. COSES informazioni32(33): 21–26.
29.
DuelundP (ed) (2003) The Nordic Cultural Model. Copenhagen: Nordic Cultural Institute.
30.
FaveroGMorettiA (2017) The Venice International Film Festival and the city: building a cultural tourist destination by Juxtaposition Cities and Creativity from the Renaissance to the Present. Oxfordshire: Routledge, 216–236.
31.
FerreiraJPRamosPNLahrML (2020) The rise of the sharing economy: guesthouse boom and the crowding-out effects of tourism in Lisbon. Tourism Economics26(3): 389–403.
32.
FistolaRLa RoccaRA (2017) Driving functions for urban sustainability: the double-edged nature of urban tourism. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning12(3): 425–434.
33.
FloridaR (2002) The Rise of the Creative Class: And How It’s Transforming Work, Leisure, Community and Everyday Life. New York: Basic Books.
34.
GoldJRGoldMM (2022) Longevity and reinvention: Venetianization and the Biennale. In: Festivals and the City. Central London: University of Westminster Press, Vol. 149.
35.
HarbGBassilC (2022) Regional growth, domestic and foreign tourism in NUTS regions: new insights from the old continent. Journal of Travel Research61(2): 279–298.
36.
HeidenreichMPlazaB (2015) Renewal through culture? The role of museums in the renewal of industrial regions in Europe. European Planning Studies23(8): 1441–1455.
37.
HenningsenEHåkonsenLLøylandK (2017) From institutions to events–structural change in Norwegian local cultural policy. International Journal of Cultural Policy23(3): 352–371.
38.
JordanPPastrasPPsarrosM (2018) Managing Tourism Growth in Europe. Dijon: The ECM Toolbox.
39.
LalicicLWeismayerC (2017) The role of authenticity in Airbnb experiences. In: Information and Communication Technologies in Tourism 2017: Proceedings of the International Conference in Rome, Italy, January, 24–26, 2017. Berlin, Germany: Springer International Publishing (pp. 781–794).
40.
LeLHRidderstaatJ (2021) Crowding-out or crowding-in: the impact of Chinese tourists on selected tourist segments in Vietnam destinations. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management22: 100655.
41.
McKinsey W. T. T. C. (2017) Coping with Success: Managing Overcrowding in Tourism Destinations. Atlanta, GA: McKinsey W. T. T. C.
42.
MilanoC (2017) Overtourism and Tourismphobia: Global Trends and Local Contexts. Barcelona: Ostelea School of Tourism & Hospitality, 1–44.
43.
MilesM (2005) Interruptions: testing the rhetoric of culturally led urban development. Urban Studies42(5-6): 889–911.
44.
MowforthMMuntI (2015) Tourism and Sustainability: Development, Globalisation and New Tourism in the Third World. Oxfordshire: Routledge.
45.
Mudarra-FernándezABCarrillo-HidalgoIPulido-FernándezJI (2019) Factors influencing tourist expenditure by tourism typologies: a systematic review. Anatolia30(1): 18–34.
46.
MulesTDwyerL (2005) Public sector support for sport tourism events: the role of cost-benefit analysis. Sport in Society8(2): 338–355.
47.
NadottiLVannoniV (2019) Cultural and event tourism: an interpretative key for impact assessment. Eastern Journal of European Studies10(1): 115.
48.
OjedaABKiefferM (2020) Touristification. Empty concept or element of analysis in tourism geography?Geoforum115: 143–145.
49.
OklevikOGösslingSHallCM, et al. (2020) Overtourism, optimisation, and destination performance indicators: a case study of activities in Fjord Norway. In: Tourism and Degrowth. Oxfordshire: Routledge, 60–80.
50.
OlsenCS (2013) Re-thinking festivals: a comparative study of the integration/marginalization of arts festivals in the urban regimes of Manchester, Copenhagen and Vienna. International Journal of Cultural Policy19(4): 481–500.
51.
O’HaganJW (1992) The Wexford Opera Festival: a case for public funding?Cultural Economics. Berlin: Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 61–66.
52.
PaivaD (2023) The paradox of atmosphere: tourism, heritage, and urban liveability. Annals of Tourism Research101: 103600.
53.
PeetersPGösslingSKlijsJ, et al. (2021) Research for TRAN Committee-Overtourism: Impact and Possible Policy Responses. Strasbourg, France: European Parliament.
54.
PettasDAvdikosVIliopoulouE, et al. (2022) “Insurrection is not a spectacle”: experiencing and contesting touristification in Exarcheia, Athens. Urban Geography43(7): 984–1006.
55.
PostmaA (2013) ‘When the Tourists Flew in’: Critical Encounters in the Development of Tourism. Groningen, The Netherlands: University of Groningen.
56.
Pulido-FernándezJICarrillo-HidalgoIMudarra-FernándezAB (2019) Factors that influence tourism expenditure in world heritage cities. Anatolia30(4): 530–546.
57.
QianCLiWDuanZ, et al. (2021) Using mobile phone data to determine spatial correlations between tourism facilities. Journal of Transport Geography92: 103018.
58.
QuinnB (2004) Making space for festivity: Venetians’ views on Carnevale. IGU Commission on Tourism, Leisure and Global Change, Pre-IGU Congress Meeting. Scotland: Drymen.
59.
QuinnB (2005) Arts festivals and the city. Urban Studies42(5–6): 927–943.
60.
QuinnB (2007) Performing tourism Venetian residents in focus. Annals of Tourism Research34(2): 458–476.
61.
QuinnBColomboALindströmK, et al. (2021) Festivals, public space and cultural inclusion: public policy insights. Journal of Sustainable Tourism29(11–12): 1875–1893.
62.
RevertéFGIzardOM (2011) The role of social and intangible factors in cultural event planning in Catalonia. International Journal of Event and Festival Management2(1): 37–53.
63.
RichardsonD (2017) Suffering the Strain of Tourism. London: Travel Trade Gazette. (special issue Word Travel Market 2017).
64.
RigantiPNijkampP (2008) Congestion in popular tourist areas: a multi-attribute experimental choice analysis of willingness-to-wait in Amsterdam. Tourism Economics14(1): 25–44.
65.
RinaldiA (2014) Externalities and tourist tax. Evidence from Italy. Rivista di Scienze del Turismo-Ambiente Cultura Diritto Economia3(2): 79–91.
66.
RussoAP (2002) The “vicious circle” of tourism development in heritage cities. Annals of Tourism Research29(1): 165–182.
67.
SalgadoDSanguiaoLOanceaB, et al. (2021) An end-to-end statistical process with mobile network data for official statistics. EPJ Data Science10(1): 1–46.
68.
SchuckertMWuJS (2021) Are neighbour tourists more sensitive to crowding? The impact of distance on the crowding-out effect in tourism. Tourism Management82: 104185.
69.
SeraphinHSheeranPPilatoM (2018) Over-tourism and the fall of Venice as a destination. Journal of Destination Marketing & Management9: 374–376.
70.
SettisS (2014) Se Venezia Muore. Toronto: House of Anansi Press Incorporated, 273–290.
71.
Skot-HansenD (2005) Why Urban Cultural Policies? Eurocult21. Helsinki: Integrated Report.
72.
SmithMKRobinsonM (eds) (2006) Cultural tourism in a changing world: Politics, participation and (re) presentation. Bristol: Channel view publications, Vol. 7.
73.
SnowballJD (2005) Art for the masses? Justification for the public support of the arts in developing countries–two arts festivals in South Africa. Journal of Cultural Economics29: 107–125.
74.
TommarchiE (2020) Port Cities, Heritage Cities. A comparative perspective on maritime cultural quarters. Portugaliae Physica(9): 1–18.
75.
TorreAGallaudD (eds) (2022) A Research Agenda for Event Impacts. Cheltenham: Edward elgar publishing.
76.
TosiL (2021) Access fees to cultural heritage cities: a way to promote sustainable tourism?World tax journal.-Amsterdam13(2): 16.
77.
Van der BorgJCostaPGottiG (1996) Tourism in European heritage cities. Annals of Tourism Research23(2): 306–321.
78.
VanhoofMHendrickxLPuussaarA, et al. (2017) Exploring the use of mobile phone data for domestic tourism trip analysis. Netcom. Réseaux, communication et territoires31(3/4): 335–372.
79.
WallaceJHoneyJSmithS (2005) The economic impact of the Southern Festival of books. Business Perspectives17(3): 16.
80.
XuYXueJParkS, et al. (2021) Towards a multidimensional view of tourist mobility patterns in cities: a mobile phone data perspective. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems86: 101593.
81.
YangCHLoPL (2018) How the influx of Chinese tourists affects national tourism behaviors: evidence from Taiwan. International Journal of Tourism Research20(5): 543–553.
82.
ZaniniS (2017) Tourism pressures and depopulation in Cannaregio: effects of mass tourism on Venetian cultural heritage. Journal of Cultural Heritage Management and Sustainable Development7(2): 164–178.
