Abstract
Though considerable research on student attitudes has been conducted in physical education, little information exists concerning student attitudes toward after-school physical activity programmes. This study assessed students’ attitudes toward their after-school physical activity programme located in southwest Texas, USA. Participants included 158 students in grades three to six, with ages ranging from eight to 12 years. They completed a five-item attitude questionnaire drawn from the attitude literature. Twenty students were also randomly selected and interviewed individually. Both the questionnaire and interview data indicated students in this study had positive attitudes toward their after-school physical activity programme. The interview data further revealed that students had positive attitudes primarily because they had fun, played a variety of games, and benefited from participation in the physical activities. Students’ attitudes were also examined in relation to their attendance of the programme. No significant relationship was found between the two variables.
Physical activity is defined as “any bodily movement produced by the contraction of skeletal muscle that increases energy expenditure above a basal level” (US Department of Health and Human Services [USDHHS], 2008: p.2). More generally, it represents any bodily movement that enhances health. School physical education programmes are uniquely positioned for providing activity opportunities and promoting knowledge of and skills for a physically active lifestyle (Morgan et al., 2003; National Association for Sport and Physical Education [NASPE], 2004; Sallis and McKenzie, 1991). Time allocated for physical education at schools, however, often fails to meet the recommendation that children and adolescents participate in at least 60 minutes of moderately intense physical activity daily (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [CDC], 2006). In central England, school physical education time was reduced to an average of 117.8 minutes per week for students in grades seven, eight and nine and 55.5 minutes for students in grades 10 and 11 (Cale, 2000).
Additionally, physical activity levels of students during physical education classes have declined significantly since 1991 (CDC, 2004). It is reported that 24.7% of students who participated in physical activities took part in activities that did not make them sweat or breathe hard for at least 30 minutes on five or more of the seven days prior to the survey in 2003 (CDC, 2004). Additionally, many school districts across the US continue to reduce or eliminate physical education to the extent that up to 40% of the nation’s youth are not even enrolled in physical education classes (USDHHS, 1996). For example, the percentage of high school students who attended physical education classes daily decreased from 42% in 1991 to 25% in 1995, and remained stable at the level of 31% until 2011 (CDC, 2012). Moreover, in 2011, 41% of 9th-grade students but only 24% of 12th-grade students attended physical education classes daily (CDC, 2012). Similarly, in Europe, while the highest physical education time allocation occurs in the lower to upper middle phase of schooling (children aged nine to 14), the lowest time allocation occurs in the upper secondary or final years of schooling, when physical education either becomes an optional subject or it disappears altogether (Hardman, 2004). Finally, 64% of students in primary schools and 46% of students in secondary schools reported participating in at least three hours of high quality physical education and out of school sport in a week (The NHS Information Centre, 2011).
These data provide support for exploring other avenues within school settings where physical activity levels may be enhanced. One avenue receiving attention over the last decade is after-school programmes. De Kanter (2001) reported that the number of schools offering after-school programmes has doubled since 1994. Kugler (2001) attributes this growth to three societal concerns: the lack of caregivers in the home after school, the high incidence of teen crime after-school and a belief that economically disadvantaged children can improve learning with additional time and opportunity offered by after-school programmes. Lauer et al’s. (2006) meta-analysis on out of school-time programmes such as after-school programmes and summer schools revealed positive effects in reading and mathematics for “at risk” students (identified by such characteristics as poor academic performance and low social economic status) (Cooper et al., 2000). Lauer et al. (2006) also noted that these programmes do not need to emphasize only academic activities to have positive effects on student achievement. Similar to Halpern’s (2002) recommendation that after-school programmes address the developmental needs of the whole child, Lauer et al. concluded that after-school programmes include both academic and social activities. Miller (2003) agrees and suggests that after-school programmes offer students a variety of activities. Such activities taught by educators provide opportunities for “at risk” students to share experiences and build specific skills.
While physical activity represents an important component of after-school programmes, its role has not received as much attention as traditional academic areas (Lauer et al., 2006). The physical activity component of an after-school programme provides opportunities outside of school physical education for children to be active and gain understanding of healthy, physically active lifestyles (USDHHS, 2008). Given that sedentary behavior and obesity are often associated with ethnicity, religion, and gender (CDC, 2004; McMurray et al., 2000), after-school physical activity programmes are particularly important for low socio-economic and minority elementary students. African-American children, for example, participated in regular vigorous physical activity (8% boys and 16% girls) less than their Caucasian counterparts (USDHHS, 1996).
The effects of after-school programmes on students’ physical activity levels, however, depend largely on whether the students are motivated to participate and want to demonstrate high levels of engagement behaviors in the programmes. Few studies to date, for example, examine “at risk” students’ attitudes, engagement, and related behavioral responses in the context of an after-school physical activity programme. Therefore, this study assessed “at risk” students’ attitudes and attendance in an after-school physical activity programme.
Students’ attitudes
Research on student attitudes toward learning has a long history (e.g., Anshel et al., 1991; Macintosh and Albinson, 1982; Prochaska et al., 2003; Subramaniam and Silverman, 2007). Attitudes are defined as an individual’s evaluation of beliefs and feelings (positive or negative) about the attribute objects (Eagly and Chaiken, 1993; Gonzales, 1992; Mohsin, 1990). In physical education settings, Anshel et al. (1991) defined student attitudes as the perceptions of students concerning teachers and physical activity that affects the process of learning and motivation. Notably, Campbell (1968) stated, “attitudes play an important role because the attitude determines an individual’s willingness to learn” (p.456).
Historically, elementary and secondary students have held positive attitudes toward physical education/activity in schools. Birtwistle and Brodie (1991), for example, found 291 secondary and 316 elementary boys and girls in the UK had positive attitudes towards their physical education programmes. The girls reported significantly higher attitudes than boys. Harris (1993) reported similar results among boys and girls aged 11–13 from two large comprehensive schools in the UK. Also noted was the importance of social support from friends among the girls.
Student attitudes have also been examined in the hopes of enhancing interest and participation in physical education settings. Macintosh and Albinson (1982), for example, compared the attitudes of two groups of 8th-grade students (13–14 years of age): those taking a physical education class and those not taking one. They found that students who chose not to take physical education reported having a less positive attitude toward physical education and as having less fun. Prochaska et al. (2003) found that positive attitudes toward physical education increased participation both in physical education classes and in physical activity outside of school. Stelzer et al. (2004) investigated the attitudes toward physical education of high school students from four countries (Czech Republic, Austria, England, and the United States). They found that students, regardless of nationality, displayed a positive attitude toward physical education. Research work with student populations from Hong Kong and the UK revealed that fun and enjoyment were the most important factors in determining individuals’ motivation for and continued participation in physical activity settings (Chung and Leung, 1998; Kremer et al., 1997; Laws and Fisher, 1999).
Therefore, learning how children perceive, feel, and evaluate attitudes is key to improving students’ dispositions toward and participation in physical education and physical activity (Subramaniam and Silverman, 2007). To this end, a body of research from the US mirrors that found in European literature on students’ perceptions of physical education programmes; specifically examining their likes and dislikes. Generally, this work revealed the majority of students had positive attitudes toward their physical education programmes (e.g., Carlson, 1994; Dismore and Bailey, 2011; Garn and Cothran, 2006; Luke and Cope, 1994; Rice, 1988; Rikard and Banville, 2006; Ryan et al., 2003; Solmon and Carter, 1995). Participants liked physical education programmes because of the variety of activities, opportunity for selecting activities, fitness benefits, and “nice” teachers. In their studies, Dismore and Bailey (2011) and Solmon and Carter (1995) examined secondary and elementary school students’ attitudes in the physical education domain. They found activity, social benefits, fitness benefits, and enjoyment as reasons why students voluntarily took physical education. Prochaska et al. (2003) studied elementary school students’ attitudes and enjoyment of physical education during a three-year period. Change in physical education enjoyment was examined by gender, ethnicity, and participation. The researchers observed that greater enjoyment was associated with more participation, better performance, and less adiposity.
While the majority of students were found to have positive attitudes toward their physical education classes, some studies observed negative feelings among students toward physical education classes. Boredom, physical discomfort, repetition, short class periods, and lack of meaningful work were factors contributing to students’ dislike of physical education (Fox and Biddle, 1988; Ratliffe et al., 1994; Rice, 1988). A competitive class environment that identified participants as “winners” and “losers” was also cited as detracting from positive attitudes in physical education (Carlson, 1995; Ennis, 1996; Portman, 1995).
These negative feelings are not unique to American physical education experiences. Beltran-Carrillo et al. (2012) found inactive adolescents from Spain reported having their performance in class unfairly compared to the fit and skillful students. Having these skillful students as “benchmarks” reduced opportunities for personal success because of the perceived unrealistic demands posed by their physical education teachers. In the UK, Dismore and Bailey (2011) reported that while most primary and middle school students enjoyed physical education, the main influences of negative experiences were lack of choice and boredom.
However, a limitation of these studies is that all were conducted in traditional physical education classes housed in school settings; none examined physical activity in out-of-school settings. Additionally, Rees et al. (2006) noted a research gap in the examination of promoting physical activity among socially excluded (i.e., “at risk”) groups. They further recommend a multi-faceted or whole-school approach to the study of student attitudes and views toward participation in physical activity. Our study attempts to address this identified gap through an in-depth examination of a group of “at risk” elementary-aged boys and girls placed in an after school programme.
Attendance
Students’ attendance can serve as a behavioral indicator of their attitudes toward the after-school programme. This is based on the assumption that students who have positive attitudes toward the after-school physical activity programme would be more likely to attend than students who did not have positive attitudes. Only five of 35 studies reported attendance in the Lauer et al. (2006) meta-analysis of out of school time programmes, so the authors concluded it was not appropriate to analyze the moderating influences of student attendance on effect sizes. However, they did note that three of the above studies reported small to moderate effect sizes linking mean number of days students attended out of school settings (from 60 days to two years) to achievement in reading and mathematics.
Physical activity classes provide opportunities for the promotion of health-related physical activity, but attendance rates in school physical education classes among middle and high school students continue to decline. While daily attendance of physical education classes among high school students was 41.6% in 1991, it decreased to 25.4% by 1995 and has not changed significantly since (Eaton et al., 2006; Eaton et al., 2010; Grunbaum et al., 2004; Kann et al., 2000). Low attendance disrupts not only the learning of students but also impacts schools. Epstein and Sheldon (2002) note that “beyond the fact that poor attendance predicts dropping out of school, chronic absenteeism can result in other negative consequences for students and schools” (p.308). Given declining attendance rates in physical education classes during the school day and generally low activity levels reported among “at risk” students, providing opportunities for physical activity in after-school physical activity programmes represents a potentially important contribution to the curriculum.
Attitude toward the programme was one of the effects found to influence participation in physical activity (Tannehill et al., 1994). Students tend to participate in activities they most enjoy (Silverman and Subramaniam, 1999). Surprisingly, little research focuses on students’ attitudes toward after school physical activity programmes and even fewer studies explore the relationship between attitudes and attendance in those programmes.
In sum, though considerable research on student attitudes toward their physical education classes has been conducted, little information addresses student attitudes toward after-school physical activity programmes. Even less is known about “at risk” students’ attitudes toward their after-school physical activity programme.
The knowledge gained about what students think and feel about their experiences in after-school physical activity programmes may be used to make these programmes a valuable experience for them (Graham, 1995), and to produce physically educated individuals (Graham et al., 1998; USDHHS, 1996). With such information, teachers and programme administrators may be able to design and direct more effective physical activity programmes to better help children form positive attitudes, which in turn may lead to regular participation in physical activity. As part of a larger research project, we examined elementary school students’ attitudes toward an after-school physical activity programme. Specifically, we address the following research questions: 1. Do students have positive attitudes toward their after-school physical activity programme? 2. Is there any relationship between students’ attitudes and their attendance level?
Methods
The setting and participants
This study was conducted in a federally funded 21st Century Community Learning Centers’ (21st CCLC) after-school programme serving mostly “at risk” African-American and Hispanic-American 3rd- to 6th-graders in the United States of America (Texas Education Agency [TEA], 2007). The 21st CCLC after-school programmes nationwide are designed to provide academic enrichment opportunities during non-school hours for children, particularly students who attend high-poverty and low-performing schools. They also offer literacy and other educational services to the families of participating children and a safe place to support these activities during the after-school hours (Chung et al., 2002).
The 21st CCLC after-school programme helps students meet state and local student standards in core academic subjects, such as reading, science, enrichment activities, math, and physical activity. For the regular school year, the programme starts at 3:00 p.m. and ends at 6:00 p.m. from Mondays to Thursdays; for the summer, it runs from 8:00 a.m. to 3:00 p.m. five days a week for one month only. Participants rotate through the five programmes with intervals of 30 minutes during the school year and 45 minutes during the summer. The physical activity programme within this 21st CCLC programme provided students opportunities to engage in maximum amounts (at least 50% of class time) of enjoyable moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA), to develop positive attitudes toward physical activity, and to learn about physically active and healthy lifestyles. The curriculum employed in the current after-school physical activity programme was the Coordinated Approach to Child Health – Physical Education (CATCH-PE) (Luepker et al., 1996) programme. Originally titled the Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health, CATCH-PE is a programme based on a school-based research study funded by the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (NHLBI). It is a developmentally appropriate physical activity programme that promotes healthy food choices, health related fitness, skill competency, and cognitive understandings about the importance of physical activity among children (Luepker et al., 1996). Aerobic games, sports, jumping rope, parachute activities, and muscular strength games are the major content areas of the CATCH-PE programme.
A total of 158 (68 boys and 90 girls) 3rd- to 6th-grade students from a rural school district located in south-central Texas participated in the after-school programme. Participant ages ranged from 8–12 years. Racial and ethnic distribution for participants represented the district’s ethnic make-up. The distribution consisted of 76.6% African-American, 17.1% Hispanic-American, 5.1% Caucasian, and 1.3% not reported. The student population of the school district came from families of low to middle income. Approximately 90% of the students in the school were eligible for free or reduced lunches. Participation was voluntary and permission to conduct this study was obtained from the institution, parents, and children.
Variables and measures
Demographics
Students responded to questions regarding their name, age, gender, race, school, and grade level.
Attitudes
Questionnaires and interviews were used to assess students’ attitudes toward their after-school physical activity programme.
Five-item questionnaire
Constructed from a review of the attitude literature (e.g., Rice, 1988; Subramanian and Silverman, 2000), this questionnaire consisted of five items. Students rated each item on a five-point scale ranging from one (strongly disagree) through to five (strongly agree). This questionnaire was part of a larger, multi-dimensional questionnaire package administered to the students.
Interviews
Twenty students (five from each of the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th grades) were randomly selected and interviewed individually. All names were changed to pseudonyms to protect students' rights to confidentiality. The semi-structured interview questions were developed from previous research (e.g., Xiang et al., 2003) included:
How did you feel about this after-school physical activity programme?
What did you like the most about this after-school physical activity programme? Why?
What did you like the least about this after-school physical activity programme? Why?
Could you tell me two or three good things that happened to you because you participated in this after-school physical activity programme? Why?
If you were the teacher what would you like to do differently? Why?
Attendance
Students’ attendance served as a behavioral indicator of their attitudes toward the after-school programme in this study. The data on students’ attendance were obtained from the CLCC programme coordinator. During the study period, there was a total of 61 days (41 days for the spring; 20 days for the summer) for students to attend. The number of days students actually participated in the programme determined the attendance variable.
Procedure
Both questionnaire and interview data were collected during the spring and summer school semesters. The questionnaires were administrated by the researchers to students during regularly scheduled after-school physical activity classes. Each item was read aloud to the students. They were encouraged to answer as truthfully as they could and to ask questions if they had difficulty understanding instructions or items in the questionnaire. They were also informed that their teachers would not have access to their responses. To ensure the independence of responses, the researchers had students spread out so that they could not see one another’s answers. The questionnaire package took approximately 30 minutes to administer.
All interviews took place in the gymnasium office and lasted 15–20 minutes. Upon completion of the questionnaires, students were each asked the five interview questions (followed by probe questions as needed) to obtain in-depth information about their attitudes toward their after-school physical activity programme. All interviews were audio taped, transcribed and subjected to analysis of content.
Data analysis
Data analysis is reported in two sections. The first section focuses on the analysis of students’ responses to the interviews, while the second section analyzes the quantitative data on students’ attitudes toward the programme, attendance and the relationships between these two variables.
For qualitative analyses, all interviews were analyzed using constant comparative method (Glaser and Strauss, 1967). The research team transcribed all interviews, read and then reread them looking for trends and explanations of student attitudes toward the after-school physical activity programme. More specifically, three stages comprised the analysis process. First, two qualitatively trained research team members read the transcript data from each student individually, categorized the data, merged categories into themes, and maintained a list of themes.
The basic unit of interview data analysis was defined as any phrase or sentence that was conceptually consistent with one theme or another. For example, the statement, “I have fun because I play different games that I can’t do in other classes like in reading, science, or math,” was coded as having fun. This process continued until no new themes emerged, or could be integrated into existing themes. It is important to note that some students gave multiple responses and each of them was coded. The second stage included the researchers analyzing the categories and themes by comparing them to one another and checking against the data. In the third stage, themes were delimited and refined when necessary. Disagreements between the researchers regarding coding were discussed until 100% agreement occurred so that all final coding were consensual.
To ensure the trustworthiness, four steps were taken. First, prolonged engagement (Lincoln and Guba, 1985) was used to allow the research team to become familiar with the participants and the after-school physical activity programme and thus reduce the possibility of misinformation or perceptual distortions. The lead author served as the coordinator of the programme for two years before the data collection occurred. Second, peer debriefing occurred on a regular basis in which research team members were asked to review the data analysis and interpretations. The peer debriefing aided in exposing any unfounded interpretations and overlooked themes from the data (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). Third, upon the completion of data analysis, all materials from audiocassette tapes to the final interpretations were given to an auditor familiar with qualitative research. The auditor examined the data analysis process to ensure that the conclusions were logically supported by the original data (Lincoln and Guba, 1985). Finally, triangulation of the data provided a comparison between the interview and attitude questionnaire data.
Quantitative analysis first performed an exploratory factor analysis (EFA) to examine the construct validity of students’ attitudes assessed by the five-item questionnaire. Second, descriptive statistics provided an overall outlook of students’ attitudes and attendance. Third, Pearson product-moment coefficients of correlation (r) were computed to determine relationships between attitudes and attendance.
Results
Qualitative analysis
Interviews were transcribed, coded, and subjected to analysis of content procedures. The interview data revealed students’ attitudes about their likes and dislikes of the after-school activity classes and are reported in relation to the five interview questions.
Question 1: How did you feel about this after-school physical activity programme?
Of the 20 students interviewed, 18 children felt good about the after-school physical activity programme. The remaining two students had mixed feelings. Both of them liked the after-school physical activity programme but did not like teachers. For example, Kim complained about teachers, not only in the after-school physical activity classes but also in math, science, reading, and enrichment classes. She stated, “They are mean! Because they are yelling too much! I know they want us to be quiet. Teachers need to ask kids to sit against the wall instead of yelling, so kids will listen to them.” Mary, on the other hand, explained that she did not like the teachers because she had previously argued with them.
Thirty-two responses were generated by the students. Their positive perceptions of the programme fell into four categories: (1) having fun, (2) physical benefits, (3) playing with friends, and (4) doing something after school.
1. Having fun
Students who gave a response within this category (15 responses out of 32) felt that the after-school physical activity programme was fun. For example, April commented, “I like physical activity classes because I have fun and play different games that I can’t do in other classes like in reading, science, or math. And we play things that I like to play like kickball and volleyball.” Beste provided another response: “It is fun because I learn new games and play them.” Tom stated, “It is exciting to do things you want to do and what CCLC teachers do. And, you know, it is fun to play different games.” Lastly, Esra stated: “It is fun, you know, because we can do anything we want to do like jumping ropes and shooting hoops.”
2. Physical benefits
Students’ responses in this category (eight responses) indicated the after-school physical activity programme offered them opportunities to reduce weight, keep their bodies in shape, and make them strong. Typical responses included:
I feel good about it. I like to be in physical activity class because it helps me exercise my body, gives energy to my body, and shapes my body (Fatima).
I feel good about the after-school physical activity programme. I come to the after-school programme and I am a part of everything to lose some weight because I am pretty fat (Tim).
I think physical activity classes are great. We needed it because some of the kids are bony and they think health isn’t important. That’s why some kids die. It makes kids strong and not be bony but eat healthy (Ray).
3. Playing with friends
Students’ responses in this category (five responses) indicated that students liked the after-school physical activity programme because they could play with their friends. For example, Scott stated, “I feel good about the after-school physical activity programme because I get to play with my friends.” Bob, Mariam and Robert agreed that they liked the programme because they could play and have fun with their friends. Finally, Sera said, “I met with my best friend here and I could run and have fun together.”
4. Doing something after school
Students whose responses fell in this category (four responses) felt the after-school physical activity programme provided them opportunities to do something after school. For example, Bill said, “I like it because I do not have to go home and just watch TV.” Similarly, Zeynep commented, “The after-school physical activity programme is great because it keeps me off the street and keeps me away from TV.” Finally, Scott stated, “This programme is really good because I am coming here and playing instead of just sitting at home and doing nothing.”
Question 2: What did you like the most about this after-school physical activity programme? Why?
Twenty-one responses were generated by students responding to this question. Except for one response by Jacortny who said, “I like my physical activity teachers most because they are very good teachers,” all other responses centered around two categories: (1) basketball and (2) a variety of games.
1. Basketball
Students’ 10 responses indicated that they liked the after-school physical activity programme most because they had the opportunity to play basketball. Typical comments in this category included:
I like basketball most because it is my favorite sport (Fatima).
I like basketball most because I get to shoot and score baskets (Beste).
I like basketball most because I have so much fun playing it (Tom).
I like basketball most because I can run a lot while playing basketball (Bill).
2. A variety of games
Students in this category generated 10 responses and named a variety of games they played in the after-school physical activity programme. One participant identified a simple game as being liked (Crowns and Cranes). The other responses indicated that multiple games were enjoyed. For example, Beste stated that she liked the Crowns and Cranes game because she could run and got an opportunity to improve her strength. Kim shared a similar view to Beste, but identified three activities she enjoyed, “I like to play foxtail, kickball, and race because I really like to be energized and I move around a lot!” Rhonda, on the other hand, liked free time most because she could “do anything you want like playing different games.”
Question 3: What did you like the least about this after-school physical activity programme? Why?
Students named several elements they liked least about the programme. The resultant 12 responses were placed into three emergent categories. They included dislike of: (1) some games, (2) the fitnessgram test, and (3) waiting.
1. Dislike of some games
Six responses in this category revealed that students did not like some of the games. For example, Bill said:
I didn’t like ‘foxtail’ because a whole bunch of people try to grab your flag and someone always ends up fighting. They fight because one grabs another’s flag and gets mad. I prefer basketball, kickball, football, and just like games you can pass the ball and stuff.
Jacob stated, “I didn’t like ‘Simon says’ because all we do is go up and down; it is boring.” Finally, four girls expressed that they liked football the least among the activities offered in the after-school physical activity programme. Some of their responses included:
I don’t like very much football because that is a boy game. I prefer basketball, foxtail, and jump rope (Jenny).
I don’t like football because I’m a girl and I got sweaty when I was playing it (Sera).
I like football the least because I can get a bruise if someone throws the ball hard (April).
2. Dislike of the fitnessgram test
Students who gave a response within this category (three responses) indicated that they least liked taking the fitnessgram test as part of the after-school physical activity programme. For example, Zeynep said, “I did not like the test because it made me ache. I had a shoulder sore and my knee hurt. I do not want to take the test again.” Mary simply stated, “I don’t like to run when I have to run.”
3. Dislike of waiting
Students’ responses in this category (three responses) showed dislike of waiting in the lines at the beginning of each class. For example, Kim stated, “I hate to wait because I want to play.” Mary also commented, “I do not like waiting in line because I am ready to play.” Finally, Bill noted, “I want to play basketball, kickball, and football. Playing basketball and other things can get everyone in shape and you don’t want to sit around being lazy.”
Question 4: Could you tell me two or three good things that happened to you because you participated in this after-school physical activity programme? Why?
Of the 20 students interviewed, all of them agreed that the after-school physical activity programme had positive impacts on them and made 29 responses accordingly. Five categories emerged from these responses and included: (1) increased practice, (2) learning, (3) physical improvement, (4) having fun, and (5) improved relationships.
1. Increased practice
Students in this category generated 11 responses. They expressed that they had increased activity time because of attending the after-school physical activity programme. Typical responses in this category included:
After school at home, I would sit around, watch TV, play video games, fall asleep, and you know, I would be bored. And it is hard for me to get up in the morning early and practise basketball. I’m not bored any more because I get to practise more basketball in the after-school programme (Scott).
Coming here and exercising is better than watching TV because there is not much thinking going on while watching TV. So your brain doesn’t go to mush (Jacob).
The best thing about it is I don’t have to go home because my little brother causes a lot of trouble and blames me. I can come up here, work out, and do a lot of exercise (Tim).
I am practising all types of games and sports and it will help you when you are in a real game (Jenny).
2. Learning
Students who gave a response within this category (six responses) recognized learning as a good outcome, whether it was learning new games or learning how to help people. For example, Rhonda said, “You can learn new games you do not know and get better. Someone can help you to be an athlete if you like.” Bob commented, “I get better at games that I play because I learn new things and I play a lot!” Finally, Zeynep commented, “My grades are up because I can come up here, relax, and then concentrate on my other classes.”
3. Physical improvement
Students whose responses fell in this category (five responses) realized that the after-school physical activity programme improved their physical health and appearances. For example, Fatima said, “I got my body shape back.” Bill commented, “I am more fit now.” Finally, Mariam stated, “I feel stronger and healthier than I felt before attending after-school physical activity programme.”
4. Having fun
Five responses in this category indicated having fun was one of the programme outcomes as a result of their participation in the after-school physical activity programme. For example, Tom said, “After-school physical activity programme is great because it is fun for me and all of my friends. Playing basketball, football, and jump ropes are all fun.” Other responses in this category were:
In after-school physical activity classes, everybody is happy. I am happy, my friends are happy because, you know, it is fun (Pat).
I have fun in physical activity classes because I can play with my friends (Robert).
I like jogging around and have fun (Beste).
Instead of going home, I come up here, do a lot of things and have fun (Tim).
5. Improved relationships
Two responses focused on improved relationships as a result of their participation in the after-school physical activity programme. Robert, for example, said, “I can play and share everything with my friends in the programme.” Sera commented, “I felt good about the after-school programme when Mr. David (one of the physical activity teachers) said he was my friend because I never had a friend before.”
Question 5: If you were the teacher, what would you like to do differently? Why?
When responding to this question, all 20 students indicated they would do something new or different if they were in charge of the programme. Four categories emerged from 22 responses generated by these students. They included more traditional games and sports, more running, more non-traditional games and sports, and more outdoor activities.
1. More traditional games and sports
Students who gave a response within this category (eight responses) stated that they would put more traditional sports and games such as basketball, football, and kickball in the after-school physical activity programme if they were the teachers. Typical responses included:
I would do football because I like it and not all girls like football. I’d like to teach basketball for girls only because girls don’t like football and because it is the easiest sport out of all the sports (Tom).
I would put more basketball, soccer and baseball games and I would involve myself more in the children’s games (Beste).
I would put more volleyball because when you want to be in a high school volleyball team, you need to learn more in elementary school (April).
I would let children have fun by playing flag football and all of the other sports (Robert).
2. More running
Six of 22 responses comprised this category. Students in this category expressed that they would incorporate more running into the programme if they were the teachers. For example, Fatima said, “I would make kids run around the gym at least two laps because running makes children healthy.” Bill commented, “I would put more running at the beginning of the class, so children don’t catch cramps and get sick. If you look at athletes who don’t stretch, they will get cramps or hurt themselves most likely.” Finally, Rhonda stated, “Let them exercise by running around the gym a couple times.”
3. More new games and sports
Students in this category generated five responses. For example, Bob said, “I would try to invent new games.” Jenny stated, “I would put more exercise and fun games because everybody will participate.” Mary said, “I would put some dance classes in”. Finally, Susan concluded, “You know, you do not want to do the same thing over and over.”
4. More outdoor activities
Three responses called for doing more activities outside of the gym. For example, Kim said, “I would do more outside activities because we sit inside a lot of time. Outside is good for physical activities because it is more fun!” Two other students commented:
I would let everybody go outside every day because when the door isn’t open, the inside of the gym gets really hot and, you know, children can get hurt in the gym because of the walls inside. If you throw a ball against the wall, the ball will hit somebody. Outside, this will not happen because you get a wide space and nobody gets hurt as bad as in the gym (Scott).
If I had three tutors, I would make three groups of students. The first group would be outside of the gym [in the gym] and one tutor watch the outside kids. The second group would be inside and they would play volleyball. And the last group would do their homework. I would do this because kids could get activity instead of just playing around the gym and because they could hurt someone while playing in the gym (Tim).
Quantitative analyses
Given that there is no prior knowledge of the number of factors underlying students’ attitudes toward the programme, we performed an exploratory factor analysis on the items measuring students’ attitudes. This scale consisted of five items on students’ attitudes toward their after-school physical activity programme. A principal components analysis with VARIMAX rotation revealed a single factor (labeled students’ positive attitude) with an eigenvalue exceeding 1 (see Table 1), which was further confirmed by the scree plot (see Figure 1). This factor accounted for 54.01% of the variance. All factor loadings were between .61 and .80. As a result, an overall score for students’ attitudes was computed by averaging the items on the scale for each student. Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was .77.
The eigenvalues of students’ positive attitudes.
Exploratory factor analysis of students’ attitudes.
The mean score of students’ attitudes (M= 4.45, SD= .67) was also above the midpoint of the scale (i.e. 3), indicating that students had a positive attitude toward the after-school physical activity programme. Additionally, as a behavioral indicator of students’ attitudes, the average number of days students actually attended the after-school physical activity programme over the spring and summer semesters was 38.17 out of a possible 61 days. This suggests the attendance level of this group of students was moderate (i.e., approximately 63%; see Table 2). As shown in Table 2, Pearson product moment correlations revealed attendance was unrelated to students’ attitudes toward their after-school physical education.
Descriptive data and intercorrelations among variables.
Discussion
The present study examined elementary “at risk” students’ attitudes and attendance in an after-school physical activity programme. Both questionnaire and interview data indicated students had positive attitudes toward the programme. This result is consistent with previous physical education research (Aicinena, 1991; Carlson, 1995; Luke and Cope, 1994; Ratliffe et al., 1994; Ryan et al., 2003) that elementary and secondary school students’ attitudes toward physical education were generally positive.
The interview data further revealed that students held positive attitudes primarily because they had fun, played a variety of games/sports, and benefited physically from participation in physical activities. Of particularly note is that these “at risk” students were able to identify that participation in the programme was beneficial to their health when explaining their positive attitudes toward the programme. The above-mentioned factors were also observed contributing to students’ positive attitudes toward physical education in other studies. For example, Solmon and Carter (1995) reported that elementary school students perceived physical education as fun and it made them feel good and special. They cited a variety of activities, exercises, and teachers as reasons for their like of physical education. Similarly, in their elementary school study, Flohr and Toms (1997) found that many students liked everything about physical education classes because they had fun and played a variety of games including basketball. It is important to note, however, that fun is not always a distinct category but links with other elements. For example, the after-school physical activity programme was fun because a friend was there and also because they had “fun” together.
Perhaps the most important finding of this study is that many of the students considered basketball as a physical activity that determined their positive attitudes toward the programme. Basketball is a culturally dominant sport for African-Americans (Chen, 1998; McCaughtry et al., 2006; McNutt, 2002) due to the reasonably low cost of equipment (balls and hoops), unlimited facilities (anywhere outside), and rapid reward game structure (scoring) (McNutt, 2002). However, few studies have linked this activity to students’ positive attitudes in the context of after-school physical activity programmes. This observed link, coupled with the findings that some students attributed their positive attitudes to having fun, playing a variety of games, or gaining physical and health benefits, revealed multiple factors that contributed to students’ positive attitudes toward this after-school physical activity programme. The important implication is that, while basketball has potential to serve as an important activity to enhance student positive attitudes in after-school physical activity programmes serving “at-risk” African-American students, teachers and programme designers must be aware that different after-school physical activity programmes suit different students; a one-size-fits-all approach does not work. To tailor programmes to meet the specific needs of students, curriculum planners must involve students in decision-making, offer choices, and provide a variety of physical activities that are novel and interesting. All of these strategies can facilitate students to form positive attitudes toward the programmes.
Another important finding noted that some students liked running within a game setting, but not just for the sake of running without any reason or purpose. Considering that running is one of the most effective activities for developing and maintaining cardiovascular fitness, it is crucial for teachers to understand what motivates students to run. In general, students participate in activities in order to have fun, improve skills, belong to a group, be successful, and get fit. The key is finding activities they enjoy. When students find an activity that is enjoyable, they are more likely to engage in that activity. Similarly, if they are required to engage in activities they don't like, they are less likely to want to participate.
The second research question focused on the relationship between students’ attitudes and their attendance level. The correlational analysis revealed the two variables were not significantly related to each other. This result is unexpected because it is assumed that students who have positive attitudes toward the after-school physical activity programme would be more likely to attend than students who do not have positive attitudes. A possible explanation could be that there may be other issues or events in the environment or school culture that influenced the relationship between students’ positive attitudes and their attendance in the programme. Research evidence suggests that students’ attendance can be influenced by family characteristics, parents’ interest, involvement, student–teacher interactions, and productive school–family–community connections (Corville-Smith et al., 1998; Epstein and Sheldon, 2002). Families, for example, are recognized as an important influence on student attendance and an important resource for decreasing absenteeism (Corville-Smith et al., 1998; Weinberg and Weinberg, 1992).
Another possible explanation could be that though students demonstrated positive attitudes toward their after-school physical activity programme, they were not able to translate these positive attitudes into high levels of attendance in the programme. An attendance rate of approximately 63% might be considered moderate. Regardless, perhaps the afterschool attendance data could be compared to regular school attendance to attain a more accurate interpretation. Future research is needed to explore and identify strategies linking positive attitudes to higher attendance rates among students.
While this study provides valuable information about students’ attitudes and attendance in an after-school physical activity programme, its participants were mostly “at risk” African-American students and came from one rural school district located in south-central Texas. Therefore, the findings of this study may not generalize to other after-school physical activity programmes in different geographic regions or with students from more diverse backgrounds. Because of this, studies that expand the sample populations and programmes are recommended.
Finally, students’ attitudes and attendance in this study were examined at one point in time. As a result, our knowledge about how children’s attitudes might change over time as a result of participating in this programme is limited. We recommend a longitudinal design for future research in this area of inquiry.
Footnotes
Funding
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.