Exploring preservice teachers’ conceptions after ‘living a hybrid curriculum’

Abstract

Physical education reform efforts support constructivist learning theory (CLT) to re-conceptualize K-12 physical education. Advocates of models-based instruction (MBI) indicate that sport education and a tactical games approach are grounded in CLT. A key implication for physical education teacher education (PETE) programmes is to develop preservice teachers (PSTs) capable of implementing MBI. Often, PSTs enter PETE programmes with the pre-conception that learning can only occur through passive transfer of information. As a result, PETE programmes must help PSTs re-conceptualize physical education. The two purposes of this study were to: (a) explore the use of a ‘living the curriculum’ experience to influence PSTs’ conceptions of learning and teaching in physical education; and (b) examine the usefulness of visual methods to further understand students’ experiences in a PETE course. Participants were undergraduate PSTs (N = 12; five women, seven men) who experienced living a hybrid curriculum. PSTs took five to seven photographs to create a photo-collage that best depicted their experiences in the class. Semi-structured focus group interviews centered on discussion of the PSTs’ photo collages. Data analysis revealed two major themes and sub-themes: (1) Learning in physical education – (a) knowledge is socially constructed and (b) learning is active; and (2) The role of the professor – (a) professor as facilitator and (b) clinging to old conceptions. PSTs experienced cognitive conflict and conceptual addition, suggesting old ideas were not completely extinguished but revised. Overall, the PSTs’ conceptions indicated an openness to and basic understanding of alternate forms of physical education.

Keywords

Living the curriculum models-based instruction physical education teacher education sport education tactical games approach conceptual change

Introduction

Physical education in the United States (US) has developed a strong reputation for using a one-size-fits-all multi-activity curricular and teacher-centered instructional approach that too often falls short of providing students with meaningful learning experiences (Ennis, 2014; Penney, 2013). Reform efforts support the application of constructivist learning theory (CLT) to re-conceptualize Kindergarten through 12th-grade (K-12) physical education as a means to enhance learning for more students (Azzarito and Ennis, 2003; Kirk and Macdonald, 1998). General principles of CLT established through a large body of research across a variety of settings and content areas include the following: learning is an active process, learning builds on prior knowledge, and knowledge is socially constructed (Rovegno and Dolly, 2006). Advocates of models-based instruction (MBI) point out that sport education (SE), a tactical games approach (TGA) and cooperative learning are grounded in the major principles of CLT (Dyson et al., 2004). More specifically, these models emphasize the major principles of CLT by creating opportunities for students to be active in the learning process (instead of passive recipients) through tasks designed to elicit decision-making, critical thinking, and problem-solving. A key implication for physical education teacher education (PETE) programmes is to move way from a one-size-fits-all approach and develop preservice teachers (PSTs) capable of successfully implementing a variety of curricular and instructional models as a means to better meet the learning needs of all students (Dyson et al., 2004; Ennis, 2014; Gurvitch et al., 2008a; Kirk, 2013; Metzler, 2011).

Unfortunately, most people tend to teach the way they were taught and PSTs have limited to no experience in learning through MBI that is consistent with constructivist learning principles (Borko and Mayfield, 1995; Dyson et al., 2004). Therefore, PSTs come into teacher education programmes with the pre-conception that the only way learning occurs is through the simple and passive transfer of information from teachers to students (Hammerness et al., 2005). As a result, in order for graduates to effectively utilize a variety of curricular and instructional models, PETE programmes must find ways to help PSTs make a conceptual shift that leads to viewing physical education learning and teaching in new ways (Dyson et al., 2004). An important first step toward a conceptual shift is to learn in environments utilizing models that are consistent with constructivist learning principles. ‘In fact, learning in the ways they are expected to teach may be the most powerful form of teacher education’ (Bransford et al., 2005: 76).

The work of Gurvitch et al. (2008a) still guides PETE programmes as they strive to help PSTs learn MBI. Systematic changes involving the adoption of MBI across a PETE programme indicated student teachers effectively selected and implemented MBI units and ‘acknowledged the role that change agents (e.g. P–12 pupils, cooperating teachers, PETE faculty, and themselves) and agency factors (e.g. a school’s facilities, scheduling, physical education curriculum, administrative support, and class size) will play in their future decisions to use MBI’ (Gurvitch et al., 2008b: 484). These findings further clarified that PSTs will more likely adopt innovative teaching approaches such as MBI if PETE programmes design learning experiences to help them re-conceptualize teaching and learning in physical education. More specifically, researchers encouraged PETE faculty members to create authentic MBI opportunities that allow PSTs to experience MBI both as participants and as teachers (Gurvitch et al., 2008b).

The notion of ‘living the curriculum’ (Oslin et al., 2001) or creating opportunities for PSTs to experience forms of MBI was also supported in previous literature, indicating this may aid PSTs’ learning of SE and TGA (Collier, 1998; Kinchin et al., 2005). However, as pointed out by Deenihan et al. (2011), to date few studies have provided an analysis of the PSTs’ experiences but instead have focused almost solely on faculty members’ teaching methods. As a result, Deenihan et al. (2011) shifted the focus of their study by exploring PSTs’ experiences during a SE season. The findings not only further supported the use of such experiences, but also highlighted PSTs’ desire to experience SE earlier in their PETE programme. Ennis (2014) echoed this and urged PETE programmes to teach MBI earlier and more often. A typical US PETE programme is four years in length, with general education (humanities, arts, social sciences, mathematics, physical sciences) and fundamental physical education content (invasion, net/wall, field/run/score, target games, outdoor activities, etc.) coursework taken in the first two years. The last two years include a progression of physical education field experiences that begin with observation and culminate with student teaching/supervised full-time teaching. To date, the focus of most research on PSTs is student teacher implementation of MBI. Overall, little information exists on PSTs’ learning about MBI and/or the extent to which they re-conceptualize their views of physical education as they progress through PETE programmes.

Conceptual change is learning that results in changes in an existing conception or idea about something, a shift in understanding, or even the replacement of an existing conception, idea, view, or way of thinking (Davis, 2010). The process of conceptual change includes the use of one’s existing knowledge (conceptual ecology) to determine whether a new conception is intelligible (knowing what it means), plausible (believing it to be true), and fruitful (finding it useful) (Hewson, 1992). If one views the new conception as only intelligible, then a weaker form of knowledge restructuring occurs. However, if the new conception is viewed as intelligible, plausible, and fruitful, then accommodation or strong radical knowledge restructuring is more likely to occur (Posner et al., 1982). Lastly, a constructivist perspective on conceptual change fully recognizes that not only does one’s conceptual ecology influence conceptual change, but so do affective, social, and contextual factors in the learning environment (Davis, 2010).

The significance of the current study lies in revealing new information about how PSTs interpret ‘living the curriculum’ experiences with MBI in years one to two. More specifically, the instructional models SE and TGA were used to promote a conceptual shift among PSTs toward understanding constructivist perspectives on learning and teaching. Information gained from this line of inquiry can be used to help PETE programmes establish best practices for the design of a more systematic progression of experiences that help PSTs understand constructivist perspectives on learning and teaching that lead to an increased ability to effectively utilize SE and TGA upon graduation.

Research purposes

The two purposes of this study were to: (a) explore the use of a ‘living the curriculum’ experience to influence PSTs’ conceptions of learning and teaching in physical education; and (b) examine the usefulness of visual methods to further understand PSTs’ experiences in a PETE course.

Constructivist teacher education

The current study used constructivism as a theoretical framework to develop a course within a PETE programme that implemented constructivist-based instruction in the form of SE and TGA. Basic tenets of conceptual change theory were then used to interpret the PSTs’ experiences in the course. Constructivism is a learning or meaning-making theory maintaining that individuals create or construct their own understandings through the interaction of what they already know and the ideas, events, and activities with which they come in contact (Richardson, 1997). As a result, constructivist learning environments include active engagement, inquiry, problem-solving, and collaboration (Richardson, 1997). However, as previously indicated, PSTs enter teacher education programmes with pre-conceptions about how learning occurs and that the role of the teacher must always be limited to the dispenser of knowledge (Hammerness et al., 2005). Research specific to PETE indicates that this can limit PSTs’ openness to learning about and using teaching practices influenced by constructivist views on learning such as MBI (Doolittle et al., 1993; Gurvitch et al., 2008b). According to constructivist perspectives and conceptual change theory, before altering or restructuring existing knowledge, learners must encounter an experience that conflicts with their current way of thinking (Strike and Posner, 1985). This suggests PETE programmes must make well-planned and deliberate attempts that challenge PSTs’ preconceived ideas about learning and teaching to increase the likelihood that they will later utilize approaches influenced by constructivist views on learning such as SE and TGA (Gurvitch et al., 2008b).

Consistent with constructivist views on learning, the current study used a ‘living the curriculum’ approach as outlined by Oslin et al. (2001) to guide the development of a hybrid curriculum for PETE students to experience in year two of a four-year programme. The course was designed as a purposeful attempt to create cognitive conflict or disequilibrium as a means to influence PSTs’ conceptions of teaching and learning. Through their own active participation as students, PSTs experienced a hybrid form of MBI combining TGA and SE. The goal was for the ‘living the curriculum’ experience to: (a) promote conceptual change as a means to help PSTs make progress toward understanding constructivist views of learning and teaching; and (b) help PSTs gain foundational knowledge of SE and TGA, all of which could be expanded upon later in the programme. In other words, the ‘living the curriculum’ approach was designed as a first step in promoting a conceptual shift and to help second-year PSTs in a four-year programme learn about SE and TGA.

Methods

Fidelity of the hybrid curriculum

The hybrid curriculum model PSTs experienced included a combination of SE and TGA. Therefore, as recommended in previous literature, instruction was validated through non-participant observations to ensure consistency with recommended standards for SE and TGA utilizing: (a) programme context; (b) rich description of curricular elements; and (c) model validation (Hastie and Casey, 2014).

Programme context

After gaining Institutional Review Board approval, 12 self-selected participants (two Hispanic (one man, one woman), one African American (man), and nine Caucasian (five men, four women)), who were undergraduate Kinesiology majors aged 19–22 completed informed-consent forms. In order to maintain their anonymity, pseudonyms were used. Participants were enrolled in a 16-week required PETE sophomore-level individual games and sports course at a four-year comprehensive university in the southern US. Additionally, all 40 students in the course completed a permission-to-be-photographed form. As the study began, when asked by the first author, participants indicated they had not experienced units of instruction utilizing SE or TGA prior to the study and that overall their own middle- and high-school physical education classes focused on athletic performance and were typically characterized by the use of only direct instruction, exercise as punishment, and winning as the central focus.

The first author developed and taught the course. She was a certified physical education teacher with six years of K-12 experience, a PhD in physical education curriculum and instruction, and 12 years of experience designing and implementing multiple forms of MBI, including TGA and SE in an undergraduate and graduate PETE programme, as well in professional development workshops for physical education teachers. When data were collected, this was her second semester at a new university in a different state. Additionally, she was the first PETE faculty member to teach this course using a MBI approach. The second author was a certified physical education teacher with seven years of K-12 experience, a EdD in curriculum and instruction, and 13 years’ total experience in higher education preparing future physical educators. At the time of data collection, he had three years of experience implementing MBI in PETE courses.

Curricular elements

The 16-week hybrid model PSTs experienced was in a course that met for 75 minutes, twice a week. The term ‘hybrid model’ was used to represent how the professor’s pedagogy combined a TGA and SE, which, according to Hastie and Curtner-Smith (2006), can be combined without hindering the advantages of each. In weeks one and two the professor implemented a TGA alone, with SE being added at week three. PSTs stayed on the same team for the entire 14-week SE season, which included two mini-seasons, net/wall games, and target games (see Table 1 below).

Table 1.

The course preservice teachers (PSTs) experienced.

Week	Content	SE component	TGA component
1	TGA introduction 1 vs 1 throwball game (toss underhand over a line, short and deep)	Modified gameplay	Maintain a rally and set up to attack by creating space Lesson format: Game, teacher questions, practice, and game
2–3	Modified pickleball: 1 vs 1 Basic skills: Forehand, backhand, drop shot, serve, volley, smash, and returning to home	SE Teams: Team name, handshake, cheer, and roles Teams create singles line-ups Round-robin team format league play Daily team score sheets	Maintain a rally and set up to attack by creating space Defend space Win the point Hybrid lesson format: Game (within teams), teacher questions, practice (led by coaches), and gameplay against another team
4	Modified pickleball: Doubles moving as a team Team format gameplay	Teams create doubles teams Round-robin league play singles and doubles Team cheer Teams create practice plan	Create space as a team Hybrid lesson format: Game (within teams), teacher questions, practice tasks are shared in a coaches meeting (coaches then take this back to teams), and final gameplay is against another team
5–6	Modified peteka games: Striking underhand, overhead, serve, returning home, pass, set, and smash	Teams create practice plan Round-robin league play (3 vs 3) Team cheer	Maintain a rally Set up to attack Win the point Defend space
6	Modified peteka: Triples gameplay and practice of pass, set, hit/smash	Round-robin league play (3 vs 3) peteka	Set up to attack by creating space
7–8	Badminton: Modified singles game play and practice of clear, drive, drop shot, serve, smash, recovery to home, and doubles formations	Teams carryover to badminton Players alternate the coach role by leading lessons from the badminton chapter in Mitchell et al. (2013) Round-robin league play at the end of each day	Maintain a rally and set up to attack by creating space Win the point Defend space
9	Intro to target games: Bocce, and shuffleboard gameplay, and practice	Teams design/implement bocce or shuffleboard practice tasks Round-robin league play continues	Score and prevent scoring by sending ball or disk the proper distance
10–11	Golf: Putt and chip game	Teams create and play par-3 course	Hit ball the proper distance Avoid obstacles
12–13	Golf: Full swing with an iron games, design a hole, team play	Teams create and play par-3 course	Hit the proper distance Avoid obstacles
14–15	Create a net/wall or target game project	Culminating event: Teams teach game	Games designed to solve tactical problems
16	Final: Game creation movie trailers shared	Awards ceremony

SE: sport education; TGA: tactical games approach.

Note: Originally from Brazil, peteka is played similarly to volleyball/badminton but using only the hands.

More specifically, the first two weeks were designed to help PSTs learn major components of TGA while also learning net/wall game tactical problems and solutions. To facilitate PSTs’ learning about tactical games teaching, they read the first four chapters of Teaching Sport Concepts and Skills: A Tactical Games Approach for Ages 7 to 18 (Mitchell et al., 2013). Instruction included ‘living the curriculum’ experiences with teacher-led net/wall tactical games lessons, allowing PSTs to experience the model like a student in a physical education class would encounter. As week three began, all major components of SE were also added. To help PSTs gain a basic understanding of the SE model, they read chapters one and two of Complete Guide to Sport Education (Siedentop et al., 2011). The season was characterized by a volunteer sports board creating nine teams of four to five students, with teams then creating their own name, handshake, cheer, and warm-up routine in their designated spaces. Team roles were coach, manager, statistician, fitness trainer, and scout. Teams kept track of daily points earned, eventually creating and implementing their own practices. Tablet video technology was utilized to assess game play and skills as part of team practices. Coaches used YouTube video clips to help teach their players about games and skills.

As week three began, a TGA and SE were combined in the nature of the daily lesson cycle. Class started with teams engaging in self-designed warm-ups as coaches met with the professor to learn about the initial game form they were to instruct their teams to play. As a result, the initial game form that is typically part of a TGA was played with their own teams and led by the coach. Early in the season, the professor then pulled all players and teams together to ask a short set of questions designed to help the class understand links between the tactical focus for the day and the need to practice skills that solved the tactical problem. Coaches then led teams in practices designed by the professor. As the season progressed, coaches asked their own players the teacher questions (instead of the professor) and teams designed their own practices. Class always ended with ongoing round-robin game/match play against another team. Teams also earned points for their personal and social responsibility rating. The culminating event was a two-phase project that first included teams creating their own net/wall or target game. In the second phase of the culminating event, teams used the iMovie application to create a movie trailer depicting key elements of their game. On the final day of the season, teams shared their movie trailers and gave an award to another team.

Model validation

The second author (observer) made field notes while observing four different 75-minute lessons taught by the first author/professor. Time between each observation was two to three weeks. Field notes were taken to describe the first author’s use of the two instructional models as well as the PSTs’ reactions to their experiences with the hybrid model. The main validation of model implementation was the use of Metzler’s (2011) Tactical Games (TGA) and Sport Education (SE) teacher benchmarks to guide observations and field notes. This benchmark tool was utilized during each observation to verify the implementation of the teaching model elements. The major benchmark elements included: planned around a season, promotion of affiliation, formal competition, recording keeping, and culminating event and festivity. Teacher benchmarks used to validate the acceptable use of TGA included: use of a tactical problem as the organizing unit, instruction begins with a game form, use of teacher questioning that leads students to solve the tactical problem, and a review that includes the tactical problems of the lesson. Field notes were shared with the first author through ongoing informal conversations and in a final meeting at the end of the semester.

The first author (professor) formally reflected on her teaching through an open-ended journal of four teaching reflections, detailing five pages of information on her use of the hybrid model as well as students’ responses to her teaching. Metzler’s (2011) TGA and SE teacher benchmarks were the basis for the teacher’s reflections. This journal was used to help inform her practice as she planned throughout the course. Through ongoing informal conversations as well as a final meeting the first and second author met to corroborate on the benchmarks observed in the class and to discuss the field notes and teacher reflections.

Course documents were provided to PSTs to help facilitate the TGA and SE models. For each unit, the professor provided readings that described the general structure of the unit detailing the rules as well as a game framework with tactical problems and on and off the ball solutions/skills. Additional handouts provided step-by-step pictures of skill sequences, written cues, and game tactics. Specific lessons with the tactical problem, lesson focus, objective, and game instructions were given to PSTs. The following were provided in each of the game instructions: setup of the activity, goal of the game, questions to reinforce the tactics, and an activity to practice the task. The professor also provided a self-reflection sheet for PSTs to complete each day regarding their affective behavior. Data from PSTs’ self-reflections guided instruction by helping the professor determine how well PSTs understood and honestly assessed their own personal and social behavior.

Visual methods

The usefulness of visual methods to further understand PSTs’ experiences in PETE is another topic worthy of attention. The use of visual methods in research has increased across numerous fields including education, physical education, and professional development (Azzarito and Kirk, 2013; Parker et al., 2015; Stanczak, 2007). The general purpose is to expand our understanding of the social world by studying images produced as part of culture (Thompson, 2008). Unlike most PETE research to date, visual research methods were utilized in this study to ‘facilitate participants in finding their own language to articulate what they know, and help them put words to their ideas and feelings and share understandings of their worlds, thereby giving participants more control over the research process’ (Enright and O’Sullivan, 2012: 129). As suggested by Enright and O’Sullivan (2012) and consistent with CLT, researchers in the current study utilized visual methods as a means to relocate participants in the research process, embracing them as collaborators in the research process instead of passive subjects being studied. More specifically, PSTs in this study were positioned as co-researchers by taking pictures of their own lived experiences within a PETE course. Giving PSTs the opportunity to take pictures generated respondent-centered data instead of researcher-created data, thus allowing researchers a unique opportunity to see and examine PSTs’ experiences from their (PSTs’) own viewpoints (Jones et al., 2012). This type of visual method is referred to as photo-elicitation and guided the methodology utilized in the study.

Central to photo-elicitation is the insertion of a photograph into a research interview. In the case of this study, photo-elicitation involved PSTs taking pictures they thought best captured their experiences in a required class. The photographs were then used in an interview process allowing participants and researchers to discuss the photographs together (Collier and Collier, 1986). Allowing participants visual and verbal means to express their observations, ideas, emotions, and activities expands both the participants’ and researchers’ opportunities to understand the complex narratives of living through specific life experiences (Keats, 2009).

Photo-elicitation project

The photo-elicitation project consisted of two parts: participants taking photographs of personally significant representations and/or activities in the class to create a photo collage (see Figure 1), followed by participation in one photo-elicitation focus group interview where the meaning of such photographs was discussed with researchers. The use of photographs in this visual method allowed PETE students to take pictures of themes important to them, therefore helping to erase the traditional power imbalance between participant and researcher while helping researchers gain access to participants’ conceptions of constructivist-based physical education learning and teaching (Pink, 2007). Additionally, the photographs served as a mechanism for reflection and an icebreaker for discussion in the interview process.

Figure 1.

Sample photo-collage.

In an initial meeting, participants were given a disposable camera and invited to take five to seven photographs across the last two weeks of the 16-week class. The following prompts helped to focus their picture taking: What was it like to experience the new instructional models TGA and SE? and Things I learned that will help me become a better teacher.

After the two-week photo session, all cameras were picked up by the researchers and pictures developed. In a second meeting, PSTs created and described their photo collages. Materials researchers provided to PSTs included: their own photographs, a poster board, tape, pens, pencils, markers, and scissors. Guided by Wang and Burris’ (1997) three-step approach of selecting, contextualizing, and codifying, participants then analyzed their own photographs. Researchers had students do this by first asking them to select only five to six photographs they felt best represented their experiences in the class (most had six to seven photographs). Next, they were asked to use the pictures they chose and the materials provided to create a photo collage that told the story of their experiences in the PETE class. As part of the collage, students were asked to write brief captions for each photograph indicating why they took the pictures they did and/or what they meant to them in relation to their experiences in the class. Once all students completed their collage, the researchers conducted a semi-structured focus group photo-elicitation interview to discuss their photo collages. Group questions consisted of the following: How did you decide which photographs to take? Why did you choose these photographs? What do the photographs represent to you? How are the photographs linked to you becoming a better physical education teacher? How did you decide what to include on your photo collage? Will you consider using a TGA and/or SE model when you teach in the future? Why or why not? and What suggestions do you have for more effectively including TGA/SE models in PETE programmes? The creation of photo collages allowed an opportunity for PSTs to identify meaningful experiences living a hybrid curriculum. Each of the 12 students participated in one of four different photo-elicitation activity sessions conducted as described above. In order to help ensure PSTs’ responses were unbiased and authentic, interviews took place after the PSTs knew their final course grade. As the interview sessions began, researchers assured participants there were no right or wrong answers and that their responses would not affect their grade in the course. Researchers further explained that the interviews were a way for them (PSTs) to reflect on their learning experiences in ways that would help us (researchers/professors) improve the PETE programme. As a result, PSTs were actually encouraged to be critical and speak freely. All sessions were recorded, each lasting between 45 minutes to an hour, then transcribed verbatim.

Data analysis

Data were analyzed using open and axial coding (Corbin and Strauss, 2008). Analysis focused on the identification of recurring themes that either were or were not consistent with constructivist teacher education and conceptual change. Open coding was used to identify concepts and categories in interview transcripts, field notes, teaching reflections, and course documents by reading each numerous times and making notes about or tagging important units of data. Once initial codes were determined through open coding, numerous examples of each were identified from all data sources helping to explain the PSTs’ experiences. Next, axial coding was utilized to identify relationships among the initial or open codes. The purpose of the axial coding process was to make sure the concepts and categories still accurately represented data and, if so, to discover ways the concepts and categories were related (Biddix, 2009).

Trustworthiness

Trustworthiness was achieved using four methods. First, triangulation using multiple investigators for data collection and analysis, and multiple data sources (PSTs’ interview transcriptions, field notes from teaching observations, teaching reflections, and course documents) were utilized to corroborate the findings (Merriam, 2009). Second, students were involved in numerous ways including collection and analysis of data as well as completing member checks. This involved making interview data available to the PSTs to ensure all interpretations were accurate. Third, the first author kept a research journal of methodological decisions. Finally, prolonged engagement, consisting of three hours a week for 16 weeks, allowed for a familiar relationship between participants and researchers (Merriam, 2009).

Results

Fidelity of MBI

Metzler’s (2011) teacher benchmarks for SE and TGA were utilized to verify the inclusion of specific pedagogical behaviors during each observation. Metzler’s (2011) SE teacher benchmarks, unit planned around a season and formal competition, were evident as instruction included pre-season scrimmages, use of course documents to support development of teams, and round-robin league play (Observations 1, 2). The SE benchmark affiliation was achieved in multiple ways including: PSTs stayed on the same team and practiced in their own space for the duration of the 16-week course (Field notes, Observations 3, 4). Additionally, the PSTs were involved with team selection, and regularly carried out their own roles and responsibilities as fitness instructor, coach, equipment manager, or captain throughout class time (Field Notes, Observations 1, 2, 3, 4). Formal competition was seen taking place in the form of league round-robin play with a team folder that included the tournament draw, line-up sheets, and a daily score sheet to track and record performance. Forms of festivity included the creation and use of team names and cheers. Teams often used their self-designed cheers just before round-robin play (Observation 3, 4). Evidence of a culminating event included the viewing of each team’s game creation iMovie trailer project prepared for the season closing ceremony (Field notes). The professor’s use of a TGA was validated using a checklist to indicate Metzler’s (2011) teacher benchmarks and revealed: ongoing use of a tactical problem as the organizing center for learning tasks; lessons began with a game form; use of questions to get PSTs to solve tactical problems; and lesson closure that reviewed the tactical problem(s) of the lesson (Observations 1, 2, 3, 4, Course Documents).

Conceptual change: a constructivist perspective

A constructivist perspective on conceptual change theory was used to interpret all data. Two themes reflected ways a living-a-hybrid-curriculum experience influenced PSTs’ conceptions of physical education: (a) Learning in physical education; and (b) The role of the professor.

Learning in physical education

This theme represents how the living-a-hybrid-curriculum experience challenged PSTs’ existing views of learning, thus creating cognitive conflict, which is critical for conceptual change to take place (Posner et al., 1982). This is represented by the following sub-themes: (a) knowledge is socially constructed; and (b) learning is active.

Knowledge is socially constructed

The PSTs’ descriptions of their learning experiences through the hybrid curriculum indicated that they recognized it was ‘more of a change than anything’ (Troy, Focus Group #2), suggesting that it caused some cognitive dissonance by challenging their assumptions about how they thought learning would occur. In addition to working together to create such things as warm-ups and practice tasks, they constructed knowledge socially by problem-solving ways to help one another improve their skills. Devon explained, as he points to the picture in Figure 2, ‘This is the picture I took when Emma was showing him [her teammate] how to do the Y form, and he got it down’ (Focus Group #2). PSTs seemingly found comfort in the social nature of these opportunities knowing they had support from teammates. Corbin expresses gratitude, stating ‘you had help from your teammates if you needed help coming up with, like, a different warm up’ (Focus Group #1), thus indicating ‘even though PSTs had their own individual roles they helped one another with the different role responsibilities’ (Observer Field Notes). The PSTs’ decisions and abilities to approvingly describe multiple coherent representations of knowledge being socially constructed suggests they viewed it as intelligible, thus indicating a small but important shift toward awareness that knowledge can be socially constructed.

Figure 2.

Problem-solving by helping teammates with the ‘Y form’ for putting.

As suggested by Strike and Posner (1992), affective and social factors in the environment seemed to influence PSTs’ views on their learning experiences. The PSTs’ descriptions were often laden with affect, suggesting the social nature of the learning tasks contributed to the establishment of relationships. One of the six unique features of SE is affiliation, calling for students to stay on the same team for an extended period of time as a means to promote the achievement of affective and social objectives. In this case PSTs stayed on the same team for 28 lessons and Troy may have expressed it best, saying ‘you got to know everybody real good’ (Focus Group #2). Getting to know one another was described as a positive experience. For example, as shown in Figure 3, Lia took a photograph of her team and explained, ‘we pretty much got to create a bond’ (Focus Group #2). However, what they experienced seemed to go beyond team affiliation. As Osiel described his team experience, he explained how he worked together ‘with people that you never thought you’d be friends with…you’re like, “oh, he’s actually a pretty nice guy,” or girl, and you get to know them, just by having fun and doing the activity together’ (Focus Group #4), thus indicating not only team affiliation, but a heightened sense of community that included feelings of acceptance for others.

Figure 3.

Teams established positive relationships.

Affect expressed by the PSTs also included motivation that was linked to the ways knowledge was socially constructed. The PSTs’ facial expressions and demeanor as they actively participated and interacted with one another seemed to indicate a sense of enjoyment (Observer Field Notes). Referring to her experiences, Rachel stated, ‘It was always an exciting class to come to…I never was like, aw I’ve got to go to class, I was like, oh guys I’m gonna go to class, this is the only class I was like really really excited about’ (Focus Group #3). When probed by researchers to explain what made it exciting, Rachel stated, ‘I don’t know, I guess just being with the people and,’ her teammate Mitchell eagerly interrupted and stated, ‘having those teams, being able to connect with those people’ (Focus Group #3).

As indicated above, most PSTs’ descriptions suggest they viewed the social construction of knowledge as intelligible (knowing what it means), plausible (believing it to be true), and fruitful (finding it useful) for their own learning of content. Some of the PSTs were also able to reflect on the value of their experiences as a student and relate them to teaching in a broad manner, such as when Corbin stated, ‘I think this type of (instructional) model was more fun…I would…probably do this type of teaching’ (Focus Group #1). Others were able to relate their experiences to teaching in more depth, such as when Larry stated, ‘I think it’s effective in getting kids active, getting kids thinking, getting them in a team and giving a team atmosphere so they can explore how to get past obstacles, or work as a team’ (Larry, Focus Group #3). Larry’s comment in particular indicates acceptance that the hybrid curriculum is intelligible, plausible, and fruitful, thus meeting several conditions Strike and Posner (1992) outline as critical for conceptual change or knowledge restructuring to occur.

Learning is active

This sub-theme represents the ways PSTs consistently described how learning was active and that this was a new experience. It seems existing conceptions about learning were challenged as Troy stated, ‘we did a lot of games in this class without a whole lot of talking’ (referring to direct instruction) (Focus Group #2). This comment suggests Troy assumed he would play a more passive role in his own learning by listening to the professor talk more, thus indicating cognitive conflict was achieved by challenging PSTs’ assumptions about how learning would occur. The PSTs recognized they played an active role in their own learning through the use of self- and peer-skill assessment. This was evident as the PSTs discussed pictures they took of the assessments as well as the use of tablet technology, stating ‘This [see Figure 4] is when we went outside with the iPad mini’s, and…analyzed our skills and evaluated…how our skills were progressing’ (Larry, Focus Group #3). Descriptions of active learning were often specific to a TGA. Emma stated:

I like the tactical games approach worksheets that made us write down what the problem was and how we were gonna solve it…it helped us know what to do in a situation, cause we got to see it and write it down on paper. (Focus Group #1)

Comments such as this one indicate recognition of the cognitive value a tactical approach offers learners. Larry reinforced this, stating ‘a tactical approach just opens the opportunity up for being creative, asking questions, and learning by doing, learning by being interactive, and…experiencing the task, or the situation, the game, and then finding ways to become more successful’ (Focus Group #3). Another PST more clearly relates her experiences to teaching as she stated,

I think that the tactical approach, should be used, like, for a gym class…it opens up their [students’] imagination,…it also gives you [the teacher] the opportunity to observe them [students in game play] before and after being taught. (Mary, Focus Group #3)

Although the PSTs usually spoke from the perspective of a student, their descriptions suggest belief in the alternative notion that learning can be active. Their descriptions also indicate they see this new alternative as intelligible, plausible, and fruitful.

Figure 4.

PSTs using tablet technology to assess skills.

The role of the professor

This theme represents ways living a hybrid curriculum helped PSTs experience cognitive conflict relative to the role of the professor. The PSTs’ views are portrayed through the following sub-themes: (a) professor as facilitator; and (b) clinging to old conceptions.

Professor as facilitator

The PSTs’ descriptions of their experiences revealed they recognized the pedagogy used by the professor was unfamiliar to them, thus suggesting they held traditional views about the role of the teacher. The PSTs struggled to find words to describe the role of the professor. Troy stated, ‘she’s [the professor] still teaching us but then we’re also getting, having our teammates and our coach teach us too’ (Focus Group #2). Another PST stated, ‘you let us go out and experience it ourselves…in a way we taught ourselves but you were always there to help’ (Rachel, Focus Group #3). Experiencing the professor as facilitator in their own learning of content seems to have caused cognitive dissonance by challenging their assumptions about how they thought teaching would occur. Although most PSTs’ descriptions were told from the perspective of a student engaged in the lesson, a few PSTs were able to relate their experiences to teaching such as when Mitchell, (Focus Group #3) said, ‘I think that it should be…[referring to the hybrid curriculum] in some of the KIN 100 classes [basic activity classes at the university].’ Whether from the perspective of a student or a teacher, the PSTs’ descriptions give the impression that they viewed the less traditional role of the professor within the hybrid curriculum as intelligible, plausible, and fruitful. Therefore, the PSTs’ statements serve as evidence of a conceptual shift toward viewing physical education teaching in a new way.

Clinging to old ideas

This sub-theme represents ways some PSTs were less open to and/or struggled with the professor as facilitator. The less direct nature of the hybrid curriculum seemed to challenge their preconceived notions of how an effective professor should teach. Even after teams had their own activity spaces and were creating and leading their own warm-ups, practices, and line-ups, it was still ‘a struggle to get all of the PSTs to embrace the shared decision making designed to empower them as a team’ (Teacher Reflections). This frustration was highlighted as Lia described a picture of her team simply sitting on the gym floor saying, ‘we could’ve been setting up what we were supposed to do, instead of just sitting there’ (Focus Group #2). Lia recognized such inactivity was not best practice but went on to imply that her team was waiting for the professor to tell them to set-up for their warm-up. Another student echoed a similar idea when asked about suggestions he would make for improving the course, stating, ‘one thing that I’d fix is [the professor] having a sense of more authority’ (Osiel, Focus Group #4), thus indicating that despite the professor’s many efforts to shift the nature of decision-making and control in class, the PSTs’ old habits of completely depending on the teacher or coach as they had for most of their schooling were still deeply rooted. This serves as evidence that some PSTs did not view the notion of professor as facilitator as intelligible, useful, or fruitful, therefore suggesting little change from their traditional view on the role of the professor. Examples such as these suggest two PSTs may not have understood or may have disregarded new information that was in conflict with prior views on the role of the professor (McCloskey, 2014).

Discussion and conclusions

‘Constructivist influences, sometimes associated with student-centered learning, have the potential to contribute to new theoretical perspectives on learning in the physical domain that can regenerate school physical education’ (Kirk and Macdonald, 1998: 377). Forms of MBI such as SE, TGA, and CLT align with constructivist views and are increasingly recognized for their potential to support physical education reform efforts (Dyson et al., 2004). As PETE programmes strive to develop PSTs capable of utilizing such pedagogies, they must find ways to first help PSTs re-conceptualize the way they view learning and teaching.

One purpose of this study was to explore the use of a ‘living the curriculum’ experience to influence PSTs’ conceptions of learning and teaching in physical education. Specifically, constructivism was used as a theoretical framework to guide development of a living-a-hybrid-curriculum experience for PSTs. We wanted to determine the extent to which the living-a-hybrid-curriculum experience promoted conceptual change as a means to help PSTs become more aware of constructivist views on physical education learning and teaching. A constructivist perspective on conceptual change theory was used to interpret PSTs’ conceptions of learning and teaching after their living-a-hybrid-curriculum experience. A second goal was for the living-a-hybrid-curriculum experience to expand PSTs’ awareness and understanding of SE and TGA.

Overall, the PSTs’ conceptions of physical education learning and teaching did not abruptly change as a result of their experiences with the hybrid curriculum. However, they did seem to experience forms of conceptual addition, meaning old ideas were not completely extinguished but revised incrementally (Fensham et al., 1994). The PSTs’ conceptions indicated an openness to and basic understanding of alternate forms of learning and teaching including SE and TGA. Guided by the work of Mayer-Smith and Mitchell (1997), a continuum of four groups was created to represent the overall extent to which living a hybrid curriculum influenced conceptual change as a means to help 12 PSTs begin understanding constructivist views of learning and teaching. The continuum ranges from PSTs whose conceptions were very influenced and aligned with ideas promoted in the course to those whose conceptions were not influenced at all and, therefore, lacked any alignment with ideas promoted in the course. Five PSTs (Corbin, Larry, Mary, Mitchell, and Rachel) seemed very influenced, demonstrating views of learning and teaching consistent with constructivist ideas promoted in the course. Descriptions of their experiences in the class included multiple coherent examples from both learning and teaching perspectives. Five of the PSTs (Devon, Emma, Joe, Terri, and Troy) were moderately influenced, demonstrating conceptions of learning and/or teaching (but not both) consistent with constructivist ideas being promoted, but lacked consistency, as they used examples mostly from the perspective of their own learning as a student. This may suggest the PSTs’ ability to only sometimes transfer their experiences as a learner to teaching situations. Two PSTs (Lia and Osiel) fell into a third category labeled minor influence. Their use of examples consistent with constructivist views was occasional and isolated. Most examples they shared from the perspective of a student favorably described learning opportunities that adhered to constructivism, such as being an active participant in their own learning as well as when knowledge was socially constructed. However, ideas they shared about the role of the teacher did not align with a constructivist perspective on teaching. Lastly, none of the PSTs’ views demonstrated a complete lack of positive influence or rejection of all aspects of constructivist views on learning and teaching.

Congruent with suggestions for influencing conceptual change, it seems living a hybrid curriculum served as a useful means for PSTs to experience cognitive conflict by confronting them with events that contradicted their existing conceptions of learning and teaching in physical education (Piaget, 1977). For example, unlike teacher-centered instruction where students are passive recipients of information, the PSTs were active participants in their own learning and socially constructed knowledge. As a result, the PSTs experienced cognitive conflict specific to their views on how learning and teaching can occur. Therefore, this study supports the notion that lived experiences play a powerful role in the formation of PSTs’ views on teaching physical education (Mantanin and Collier, 2003).

Most previous research suggests the usefulness of PSTs experiencing authentic forms of MBI as a means to enhance content knowledge as well as pedagogical content knowledge, whereas this study uniquely indicates such experiences may also be useful (perhaps even necessary) early in a PETE programme to facilitate openness to new views on teaching and learning (Collier, 1998; Deenihan et al., 2011; Fletcher and Casey, 2014; Gurvitch et al., 2008b; Kinchin et al., 2005; Oslin et al., 2001). Consistent with general education literature on teaching for conceptual change, it seems the hybrid curriculum helped make the PSTs’ traditional conceptions of physical education clearer so they could then become more aware of their own ideas and thinking, thus creating an opportunity to revise their conceptions (Davis, 2010). Findings in the current study also extend PETE literature, as most research on conceptual change instruction (or teaching for conceptual change) is limited to science education. Therefore, specifics on how to facilitate cognitive conflict/conceptual change in other content areas are scarce (Davis, 2010). More specifically, the hybrid curriculum implemented in this study may provide additional details on how PETE faculty can engage PSTs in cognitive conflict and, therefore, potentially influence conceptual change surrounding their conceptions of learning and teaching in physical education.

Visual methods facilitate access to PSTs’ views

A second purpose of this study was to examine the usefulness of visual methods as a means to access PSTs’ views on learning and teaching after living a hybrid curriculum.

Consistent with CLT, the visual methods used in this study allowed participants to reflect and produce their own visual data, and then they engaged by telling the story of their meanings, thus providing another layer of insight into PSTs’ lived experiences. The photo-collage project enabled researchers to understand PSTs’ views through their eyes (Phoenix, 2010). PSTs are often unaware of their own learning and limited in their ability to reflect on their own learning experiences; therefore, accessing information related to such experiences can be difficult for researchers (Winitzky and Kauchak, 1997). The photo-collage project gave the young second-year PSTs a concrete way to reflect on their experiences, first using a nonverbal means of expression that facilitated and expanded their ability to then further reflect upon and articulate their experiences (Keats, 2009). Although limited to five to seven photographs that best represented their experiences, the photo-collage project seemed to enhance the PSTs’ ability to reflect on their learning more deeply while revealing what PSTs found most salient in the entire course, not only during the time that the photographs were taken. As the PSTs talked about their collages, they became increasingly comfortable. Evidence of this was progressively more open and fluid discussion, uncovering PSTs’ thoughts, feelings, and emotions related to the hybrid curriculum. Subsequently, this created opportunities for follow-up questions and discussion related to whether or not the PSTs thought they would use the hybrid curriculum in the future as well as suggestions they had for improving the hybrid curriculum. Overall, the photo-collage project facilitated a process that gave researchers access to the PSTs’ conceptions of physical education learning and teaching.

Utilization of visual methods in PETE research is still in its infancy. Therefore, use of the photo-collage project in the current study represents early exploratory use of such methodology that may lead to better tools for gathering information on PSTs. Findings in the current study suggest the pairing of visual methods with small focus group interviews are measures that complement each other well. This study supports the continued exploration of combining multiple types of data as a means to provide additional insights into PSTs’ developing knowledge structures in PETE programmes. Overall, the methodology used in this study warrants further investigation of visual methods as a means to capture how PSTs interpret and respond to learning experiences in PETE programmes (Winitzky and Kauchak, 1997).

Visual methods and the scholarship of teaching

Perhaps the most unforeseen finding was how the use of visual methods helped researchers gain new understandings of their own practice. As PSTs in this study used their photo-collages to tell the story of their experiences, the first author was provided with a powerful glimpse inside her own teaching, confirming that the implementation of MBI in PETE is a complex process (Deenihan et al., 2011; Fletcher and Casey, 2014). This process also prompted us to engage in new conversations about the use of MBI in our own PETE programme. As a result, we made changes to our practice that included taking additional time to explain details from the teacher’s perspective as well as the rationale for implementing forms of MBI.

Footnotes

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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