Effects of the Sport Education model on adolescents’ motivational,emotional,and well-being dimensions during a school year

Abstract

Research on the impact of the Sport Education model (SEM) in motivational terms is prolific and consistent; however, studies that jointly address the effects of the SEM on adolescents’ motivational, emotional, and well-being dimensions are scarce. This study aimed to examine the effect of a multi-season SEM-based program on self-determined motivation, basic psychological needs, emotional intelligence, satisfaction with life, and the intention to be physically active on physical education (PE) students during a school year. A total of 212 high school students (M = 13.88; SD = 1.68) from grades 7 and 10 (nine intact groups) participated in this study. A quasi-experimental design, with four measurements (T1, September; T2, December; T3, March; and T4, June), without a control group was carried out. The repeated measures analysis of variance, with time as within-subject factor, and both grade level and gender as between-subject factors, revealed significant effects over time on autonomy F(3, 624) = 12.413, p < 0.001, η² = 0.056, competence F(2.78, 579.09) = 10.733, p < 0.001, η² = 0.049, emotional control and regulation F(2.74, 569.74) = 7.045, p < 0.001, η² = 0.033, and emotional empathy F(2.71, 563.71) = 4.248, p < 0.01, η² = 0.007. Some interactions were also found according to grade level and gender. Between-subject multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) showed differences tended to progressively increase over time. Results confirm the potential of the SEM to cushion motivational decline and satisfy the basic psychological needs during adolescence. Furthermore, the SEM was shown to be a useful approach for increasing the emotional intelligence dimensions in the PE context.

Keywords

Motivation self-determination theory emotional intelligence (ability)sport education subjective well-being (cognitive dimension)

Introduction

Empirical evidence suggests that physical education (PE) has the potential to make important contributions to the development of young people in the physical, social, affective, and cognitive domains (Bailey et al., 2009; Bessa et al., 2021). However, research on how the motivational, emotional, and well-being domains are related within the educational context is scarce (Méndez-Giménez et al., 2020). On the one hand, understanding adolescents’ motivational process in the PE context is important since their physical activity (PA) decreases with age, as indicated by the average annual decline of 7% (Corder et al., 2019; Dumith et al., 2011; Farooq et al., 2018; Sember et al., 2020). Furthermore, the majority of high school students in Western countries do not meet PA recommendations (Kann et al., 2014), and have less motivation toward PE (Ntoumanis et al., 2009). On the other hand, understanding how adolescents manage their emotions in the PE context, and its impact on their motivation and well-being, would allow us to design successful programs for their integral development (Méndez-Giménez et al., 2020).

Self-determination theory

The Self-determination Theory (SDT; Deci and Ryan, 2000) has emerged as one of the most important theoretical frameworks to explain motivation toward PA, both in school and in sport contexts (Ntoumanis and Standage, 2009). It postulates that the individual can be intrinsically motivated (due to the enthusiasm the task entails itself), extrinsically motivated (due to external reinforcement), or amotivated (due to lack of motivation). In addition, extrinsic motivation has a series of intermediate regulations that range from integrated regulation (the most self-determined) to external regulation (the least self-determined), including identified and introjected regulation. A second postulate of SDT establishes that there are three basic psychological needs (BPN; competence, autonomy, and relatedness) that allow students to be self-determined, that is, to be intrinsically motivated. They are considered as “innate psychological nutrients that are essential for ongoing psychological growth, integrity, and well-being” (Deci and Ryan, 2000: 229). Autonomy refers to the student’s ability to perform tasks independently. Competence refers to the student’s ability to solve motor problems effectively. Relatedness refers to the ability to relate to peers, regardless of gender or origin. Extensive research in the PE context (e.g. Ntoumanis, 2005; Standage et al., 2003 , 2006) has shown that greater satisfaction of these three needs is related to more self-determined motivation. Third, the SDT framework posits that motivation leads to different types of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral consequences. The most positive consequences, such as the intention to perform PA, would be produced by the more self-determined forms of motivation, while the most negative consequences would be produced by the less self-determined forms of motivation. Several studies focused on high school PE lessons have shown a drop in self-determined motivation and an increase in amotivation (Navarro-Patón et al., 2020; Vlachopoulos et al., 2011b), along with a decrease in BPN (Cecchini et al., 2012; Navarro-Patón et al., 2018; Vlachopoulos et al., 2011a). The authors pointed out the teacher's methodology as a possible cause since a class climate of competition and performance is commonly generated and emphasized during this educational stage. Inter-gender differences have also been revealed in self-determined motivation in favor of boys, suggesting the existence of a gendered curriculum (Navarro-Patón et al., 2020).

Emotional intelligence

Over the past three decades, emotional intelligence (EI) has generated huge interest in the fields of psychology, sport, and education (Hodzic et al., 2017). Two main approaches to EI stand out in the literature: ability and trait EI models. Ability models consider EI to be composed of specific emotional skills (Mayer and Salovey, 1997). EI is understood as the set of interrelated competences to perceive, express, understand, regulate, and control emotions in oneself and others (Mayer et al., 2016). Trait EI elements are personality traits, as opposed to competencies or mental abilities. Trait models include EI as dispositions related to emotion, in a hierarchically lower position to the personality traits that determine the way people behave in emotional situations (Petrides et al., 2007). The present study analyzes the EI of PE students from the EI ability model.

Two meta-analyses have highlighted a positive relationship between EI and mental, psychosomatic, and physical health (Martins et al., 2010), as well as with subjective well-being in children, adolescents, and young people (Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016). Other studies have reported moderate relationships between EI and satisfaction with life in both cross-sectional and prospective studies (Brackett et al., 2004; Extremera et al., 2011). In the sport field, the review by Laborde et al. (2016) found a positive relationship between trait EI and higher performance and sports success. They also revealed more pleasant (and less unpleasant) emotions both during and after the competitive event, as well as lower levels of stress, and greater involvement in adaptive behaviors. Furthermore, EI was related to a higher level of PA and positive attitudes toward PA. In the same way, it has been shown that trait EI is positively related to the duration and frequency of sports participation (Laborde et al., 2017).

Subjective well-being

Motivational and emotional factors are related to well-being constructs. Within SDT, Ryan and Deci (2001) pointed out the close relationship between more self-determined forms of motivation and well-being. Furthermore, the association between emotion and well-being has been established (e.g. Sánchez-Álvarez et al., 2016). Subjective well-being includes both cognitive and affective evaluations of a person's life (Diener, 2000). Cognitive well-being refers to the evaluation of people in their past and present lives and is usually measured using the Satisfaction with Life Scale (Diener et al., 1985). Affective well-being represents the balance between an individual's experience of positive and negative emotions. This study analyses the cognitive dimension of subjective well-being.

Sport Education model and comprehensive development of students

Despite the importance of motivational, emotional, and well-being factors in the comprehensive development of students, there is little information on how the PE curriculum or the application of pedagogical model-based programs influences these dimensions. One of the most studied pedagogical models is the Sport Education model (SEM; Hastie et al., 2011 , 2014; Siedentop, 1994). The SEM was defined as a model that allows students to live authentic sport experiences (Siedentop, 1994). It pursues three fundamental objectives, that is, for students to be competent, enthusiastic about the practice and literate (Siedentop, 1994). Compared to the traditional methodology (based on short units, teacher-led activities, and direct instruction), the SEM teaching is organized through: longer units or seasons; small, heterogeneous, and persistent teams during the unit; use of rotating roles (giving responsibilities to students); systematic records; and final events in a festive atmosphere (Siedentop et al., 2020).

Research on the impact of specific SEM seasons on motivational outcomes is relatively consistent across gender, grade, and content (Chu and Zhang, 2018). Compared with the traditional methodology, several studies showed significant differences in favor of the SEM in self-determined motivation (Bessa et al., 2021; Burgueño et al., 2017; Cuevas et al., 2016; Perlman, 2011; Viciana et al., 2020) and in some or all of the BPN (Burgueño et al., 2018; Cuevas et al., 2015; Méndez-Giménez et al., 2015; Wallhead et al., 2014). Chu and Zhang (2018) concluded that SEM programs generally promote a greater climate of mastery and greater students’ perception of autonomy, competence, and relatedness than the traditional PE curriculum, facilitating students’ self-determined motivation. However, a gap in this line of research is to verify whether the increased levels of self-determined motivation and BPN satisfaction are maintained over time in consecutive SEM programs. Martínez de Ojeda et al. (2016) reported maintained high levels in classroom social climate, perceived competence, and intention to be physically active in elementary school students over three consecutive seasons. Martínez de Ojeda et al. (2021) compared the SEM conditions against the traditional model in students from second to sixth grade of primary education. Students who followed the SEM condition progressively received seasons throughout their educational pathway (up to a maximum of 16 seasons during five school years). Results showed positive effects in intrinsic motivation (girls), identified regulation (sixth grade), and BPN (competence, relatedness, and novelty) in those students who participated through SEM programs. However, boys were more amotivated.

Regarding the emotional dimension, only a few studies have analyzed the effect of specific SEM seasons on students’ EI. Méndez-Giménez et al. (2017) found significant differences in favor of the experimental group in a season of body expression (mime), both in EI (attention, clarity, and repair) and BPN (autonomy, competence, and relatedness) of sixth grade students. Luna et al. (2019) revealed that a 16-session SEM pilot program of ringo (an alternative sport) promoted significant improvements in trait EI, and in a specific indicator of subjective well-being of the experimental group (grades 7–9). More recently, Arikan (2020) developed and applied a 16-week volleyball program combining the Socio-Emotional Learning framework and the SEM. The analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) showed significant post-test differences in students’ EI levels in favor of the experimental group. Finally, Luna et al. (2020b) found significant improvements in the affective component of subjective well-being and in the reduction of anxiety in favor of the SEM group compared to a control group.

Objectives and hypotheses

To date, no study has jointly reported the impact of the SEM on motivational, emotional, and well-being dimensions in PE students. The present study analyzed the effects of the SEM on BPN, self-determined motivation, EI dimensions (emotional recognition, control and regulation, and empathy), satisfaction with life, and PA intentions on high school students from grades 7 and 10 during a full school year. Additionally, it assessed whether the effect varied depending on the grade level and gender. Based on specific scientific evidence, the following results were hypothesized:

Hypothesis 1: A progressive and significant increase over time in BPN.

Hypothesis 2: Students’ self-determined motivation would remain high and without significant changes across the year.

Hypothesis 3: Significant increases in students’ EI.

Hypothesis 4: No differences are expected over time in the rest of the variables.

Hypothesis 5: Higher motivational, emotional benefits, and well-being benefits in seventh-grade students.

Method

Participants and setting

This study was carried out in a state coeducational high school in southern Spain. It was selected because of its accessibility and participation in research interventions. The socioeconomic level of the families is intermediate. A total of 13% of students are at a socio-educational disadvantage or have learning difficulties. The high school is located on the outskirts of the town, near a marginal area. The percentage of gipsy ethnic or immigrant students is very low (<7%). Participants were 252 students from nine natural groups of seventh and tenth grade. The inclusion criteria were: (a) students who had attended 80% of the SEM sessions and (b) students with 95% of the questionnaires properly completed. As a result, 40 students were not included. The final sample presented <5% of missing values in the analyzed variables, which followed the assumption of loss of data completely at random (missing completely at random). Therefore, missing values were imputed using the EM (Expectation–Maximization) algorithm. Consequently, a final sample of 212 participants (123 boys and 89 girls) took part in the study, aged between 12 and 18 years (M = 13.88; SD = 1.68). Students in this study had no prior experience with the SEM.

Design

Data for this study were collected in connection with a large research project (a complete school year) on learning with the SEM, which was approved by the school at the beginning of the academic year. A quasi-experimental design with non-probability sampling for convenience and pretest (T1), post-test1 (T2), post-test2 (T3), and post-test3 (T4) measurements in all groups was followed. The study was carried out without a control group. Each student participated in five SEM seasons of 60 min per lesson, twice a week. The timing of the teaching units (seasons) and administration of questionnaires are represented in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Timing of SEM units and sequential administration of questionnaires.

Procedure

Each of the seasons were designed and implemented in all of the groups by the same teacher/researcher (expert in the SEM), with more than 10 years of experience implementing the model. To ensure the fidelity of each season, two experts in pedagogical models exhaustively reviewed the program, thus ensuring the inclusion of all indicators for a unit to be classified as SEM (Farias et al., 2018; Hastie et al., 2017): (1) the season lasted for a long period of time, (2) the teams remained together throughout the season, (3) the competition included modified versions of the original game, (4) the students played roles other than player, (5) periods of intra-group practice were included through reduced games, (6) festivity was present throughout each season, (7) a record-keeping system was established, and (8) a final event culminated each season. Additional recommendations from Hastie and Casey (2014) have been followed: (a) description of the curricular elements of the unit, (b) validation of model implementation, and (c) a description of the program context.

The study had the approval of the board of the school. Parents or legal guardians of each student signed the informed consent letter to allow their child to participate in the study. Ethical approval was followed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki (World Medical Association, 2013). The questionnaires were anonymous and students were assured that their responses would not be available to their teachers or parents. They were also offered the possibility to decline participation or withdraw at any time. Questionnaires were administered through the Google Forms platform in the presence of one of the researchers, during class hours and in the school's computer lab. The average time for completing the questionnaires was ∼30 min. The dates on which the questionnaires were administered were as follows (T): September 2018 (T1), December 2018 (T2), March 2019 (T3), and June 2019 (T4).

Instruments

Basic psychological needs. The Basic Psychological Needs in Exercise Scale was applied, which has been adapted to Spanish and the context of school PE by Moreno et al. (2008). The scale consists of 12 items divided into three factors: autonomy (four items; e.g. “I have the opportunity to choose how to perform the exercises”), competence (four items; e.g. “I perform the exercises effectively”), and relatedness (four items; e.g. “I feel very comfortable with my classmates”). These items were introduced by the phrase “In my PE classes …”. In the study by Moreno et al. (2008), Cronbach’s alpha values were as follows: 0.81 for autonomy, 0.78 for competence, and 0.84 for relatedness.

Self-determined motivation. The different types of motivation were evaluated using the Perceived Locus of Causality (PLOC) scale (Goudas et al., 1994), which was translated into Spanish and validated in the context of PE by Moreno et al. (2009). The instrument is headed by the statement “I participate in PE classes …” and is composed of five factors and 20 items (four for each factor): intrinsic motivation (e.g. “Because PE is fun”), identified regulation (e.g. “Because I want to learn sports skills”), introjected regulation (e.g. “Because I want the teacher to think that I am a good student”), external regulation (e.g. “Because I will have problems if I don’t”), and amotivation (e.g. “But I don’t really know why”). The study by Moreno et al. (2009) obtained the following Cronbach’s alpha values: 0.80 for intrinsic motivation, 0.80 for identified regulation, 0.67 for introjected regulation, 0.70 for external regulation, and 0.74 for amotivation. The scores obtained in each of the PLOC subscales were used to calculate the self-determination index (SDI): (2 × intrinsic motivation + identified regulation) − ((introjected regulation + external regulation)/2 + 2 × amotivation) (Vallerand and Rousseau, 2001). This index indicates the degree of self-determined motivation and has been widely used in motivational research in PE classes (e.g. Moreno et al., 2008; Ntoumanis, 2005). In this research, the values ranged between −13.88 and + 18.

Emotional intelligence. The ability model of EI was evaluated. The EI questionnaire in PE was validated by Cecchini et al. (2018) from an adaptation of the EI scale in Sport (Arruza et al., 2013). This instrument is made up of 22 items that load into three factors: emotional recognition (eight items), which indicates the student’s ability to recognize their own emotions in PE classes (e.g. “I am aware of my emotions when I play or compete”); emotional control and regulation (seven items), which includes the ability to control emotions during play and participation in classes (e.g. “When I face a game and/or competition, I control my emotions”); and emotional empathy (seven items), which includes the ability to be aware of and appreciate the feelings of peers in PE lessons (e.g. “I easily understand how my peers and/or rivals feel in games and/or competitions”). The items were preceded by the heading: “In my PE classes …”. Cronbach's alpha values from the study by Cecchini et al. (2018) were 0.87, 0.81, and 0.82, for recognition, control and regulation, and emotional empathy, respectively.

Subjective well-being (cognitive dimension). The study used the Satisfaction with Life questionnaire by Diener et al. (1985), which measures a single factor composed of five items (e.g. “I am very satisfied with my life”). This instrument has been validated in Spanish by Cabañero et al. (2004). Cronbach’s alpha coefficient in the study by Diener et al. (1985) was 0.87 and in Cabañero et al. (2004) was 0.82.

Intention to be physically active. The Intention to be Physically Active scale of Hein et al. (2004) was used. The intention to practice sports or PA expressed by students has been seen as a strong predictor of these behaviors (Hein et al., 2004). This instrument is made up of five items (e.g. “After finishing high school, I would like to be physically active”) that load a single factor. Items are preceded by the phrase “Regarding your intention to practice some physical-sport activity …”. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient in the study by Hein et al. (2004) was 0.80. In the Spanish context, Moreno et al. (2007) verified its good psychometric properties through factor analysis and internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha of 0.94).

All the questionnaires used a Likert scale from 1 (totally disagree) to 5 (totally agree), with the exception of the PLOC, which rated the items between 1 (totally disagree) and 7 (totally agree).

Statistical analyses

Data were processed using the IBM SPSS 24 software. Descriptive statistics were calculated and the reliability of the scales was checked by means of Cronbach's alpha. Acceptable values in all the scales were found (α > 0.70; Nunnally, 1978), with the exception of autonomy in pretest (α = 0.68). Nevertheless, considering the proximity to the level of acceptance, as well as the interest which implied for the study, this value was maintained for following analysis (Table 1). It was determined that one variable followed a normal distribution when absolute values of asymmetry and kurtosis were <2 (Gravetter and Wallnau, 2014). This was met in all cases.

Table 1.

Cronbach’s alpha and descriptive statistics of the variables (four measurement times) according to the total sample and by grade.

		T1			T2			T3			T4
	Grade	α	M	SD	α	M	SD	α	M	SD	α	M	SD
Autonomy	7th		3.48	0.80		3.54	0.85		3.70	0.85		3.92	0.80
	10th		3.42	0.72		3.44	0.74		3.52	0.78		3.59	0.82
	Total	0.68	3.45^a	0.76	0.81	3.49^ab	0.79	0.83	3.61^bc	0.81	0.85	3.74^c	0.83
Competence	7th		3.97	0.73		3.99	0.75		4.14	0.73		4.32	0.64
	10th		3.88	0.79		3.90	0.65		3.89	0.72		3.98	0.67
	Total	0.75	3.92^a	0.76	0.75	3.94^a	0.70	0.80	4.00^a	0.73	0.79	4.14^b	0.67
Relatedness	7th		4.29	0.76		4.23	0.73		4.32	0.73		4.34	0.72
	10th		4.13	0.88		4.12	0.79		4.03	0.80		4.03	0.83
	Total	0.84	4.20	0.83	0.85	4.17	0.77	0.86	4.16	0.78	0.87	4.18	0.79
Self-determination index	7th		7.61	4.98		6.77	5.34		6.56	6.02		6.84	5.92
	10th		6.10	5.40		5.91	5.29		5.03	5.41		5.32	5.75
	Total	0.80	6.80	5.25	0.83	6.31	5.32	0.85	5.74	5.74	0.84	6.02	5.87
Emotional recognition
	7th		4.18	0.63		4.23	0.59		4.23	0.76		4.26	0.71
	10th		4.11	0.58		4.08	0.57		3.97	0.62		4.02	0.60
	Total	0.82	4.15	0.60	0.88	4.15	0.59	0.93	4.09	0.70	0.83	4.13	0.66
Emotional control and regulation	7th		3.81	0.74		3.97	0.65		4.09	0.76		4.13	0.73
	10th		3.75	0.72		3.71	0.67		3.74	0.70		3.77	0.66
	Total	0.79	3.78^a	0.73	0.83	3.83^ab	0.67	0.88	3.90^bc	0.75	0.88	3.93^c	0.72
Emotional empathy	7th		3.81	0.74		3.92	0.74		3.97	0.74		4.01	0.75
	10th		3.78	0.68		3.81	0.60		3.79	0.66		3.89	0.68
	Total	0.82	3.80^a	0.71	0.86	3.86^ab	0.67	0.88	3.87^ab	0.70	0.90	3.94^bc	0.72
Intention physically active
	7th		4.04	0.86		4.01	0.86		4.06	0.82		4.06	0.80
	10th		3.98	1.01		3.96	0.88		3.96	0.90		4.06	0.89
	Total	0.84	4.01	0.94	0.84	3.98	0.87	0.85	4.01	0.87	0.86	4.06	0.85
Satisfaction with life	7th		4.12	0.83		4.23	0.68		4.14	0.86		4.08	0.82
	10th		3.84	0.79		3.75	0.73		3.75	0.67		3.78	0.77
	Total	0.84	3.97	0.82	0.85	3.97	0.75	0.86	3.93	0.79	0.88	3.92	0.80

Note: In each row of the total sample, means with different superscripts differ at a level of p <0.05.

Main effects of intervention.

In order to assess the effects of the SEM-based annual program on the three BPN, the self-determination scores, the dimensions of EI (recognition, control and regulation, and empathy), the satisfaction with life, and the intention to be physically active, ANOVAs repeated measures (T1, T2, T3, and T4) were used as within-subject factors, while grade (7th/10th) and gender (boys/girls) were considered as between-subject factors. The level of significance was set at p < 0.05. Likewise, the size of the effect was calculated (η_p²). Cohen (1988: 40) classifies the size of the effect as small (η_p² = 0.20), medium (η_p² = 0.50) and big (η_p² = 0.80). Mauchly's test was used to verify whether the sphericity assumption was met. Finally, comparisons between grades were determined using MANOVA(s) intergroup, one for each period (T1, T2, T3, and T4). The above-mentioned variables were considered as dependent variables, while grades (7th and 10th) were assumed as permanent factors.

Results

Reliability and descriptive statistics

Table 1 shows the internal reliability coefficients, means, and standard deviations of each analyzed variable in T1, T2, T3, and T4, regarding both total sample and by grade.

Main effects of intervention

All variables met the normality criteria, with values of both asymmetry and kurtosis <2. In relation to the BPN, a main effect of the intervention emerged through time in autonomy F(3, 624) = 12.413, p < 0.001, η² = 0.056. Mauchly's test indicated that the sphericity assumption was met (p > 0.05). Regarding the pair-wise test (Bonferroni), statistically significant differences were found between: T1–T3 [t(211) = −2.92, p < 0.05], T1–T4 [t(211) = −5.37, p < 0.001], and T2–T4 [t(211) = −4.58, p < 0.001]. Neither gender nor group differences were observed (p > 0.05). A main time effect of the intervention emerged in competence F(2.78, 579.09) = 10.733, p < 0.001, η² = .049. Mauchly's test pointed that the sphericity assumption was not met (p < 0.05); therefore, degrees of freedom were corrected by means of Greenhouse–Geisser's test (ε = 0.93). With regard to the pair-wise test (Bonferroni), statistically significant differences were found between T1–T4 [t(211) = −4.94, p < 0.001], T2–T4 [t(211) = −4.80, p < 0.001], and T3–T4 [t(211) = −3.04, p < 0.05]. Furthermore, factor × grade × gender interaction was significant F(2.78, 579.09) = 4.604, p < 0.01, η² = 0.022.

In addition, a main effect of the intervention was observed in the SDI factor F(1.98, 411.41) = 8.423, p < 0.001, η² = 0.039. Mauchly's test showed that the sphericity assumption was not met (p < 0.05); therefore, grades of freedom were corrected according to the Greenhouse–Geisser's estimation (ε = 0.66).

Secondly, a main time effect of the intervention emerged in emotional control and regulation F(2.74, 569.74) = 7.045, p < 0.001, η² = .033. Mauchly's test indicated that the sphericity assumption was not met (p < 0.05); therefore, grades of freedom were corrected using the Greenhouse–Geisser's test (ε = 0.91). With regard to pair-wise tests (Bonferroni), statistically significant differences were found between T1–T3 [t(211) = −3.23, p < 0.01], T1–T4 [t(211) = −3.67, p < 0.01], and T2–T4 [t(211) = −2.78, p < 0.05]. A significant factor × grade interaction, F(2.74, 569.74) = 4.621, p < 0.01, η² = .022, as well as a factor × grade × gender interaction F(2.74, 569.74) = 2.729, p < 0.05, η² = 0.013 were also observed. A main time effect emerged in emotional empathy F(2.71, 563.71) = 4.248, p < 0.01, η² = 0.007. The Mauchly's test indicated that the sphericity assumption was not met (p < 0.05); therefore, the grades of freedom were corrected by means of Greenhouse–Geisser's estimation (ε = 0.93). Regarding pair-wise tests (Bonferroni), statistically significant differences were found between T1 and T4 [t(211) = −3.08, p < 0.05].

Figure 2 represents the evolution of variables in T1, T2, T3, and T4, according to grade level and gender.

Figure 2.

Evolution of the analyzed variables at T1, T2, T3 and T4, by grade level and gender.

Comparison between groups

In relation to between-subject MANOVAs, a significant effect emerged for the grade in all times, except in T1: T2 (Wilks’ lambda (10, 201) = 0.79, F = 2.769, p < 0.01, η² = 0.12); T3 (Wilks’ lambda (10, 201) = 0.90, F = 2.233, p < 0.05, η² = 0.10); T4 (Wilks’ lambda (10, 201) = 0.83, F = 4.007, p < 0.001, η² = 0.16). Differences arose in a greater number of variables as time progressed: T1, satisfaction with life (F = 6.067, p = .015, η² = .028); T2, emotional recognition (F = 3.947, p = .048, η² = .018), emotional control and regulation (F = 7.832, p = .006, η² = .036), and satisfaction with life (F = 24.241, p <.001, η² = .103); T3, competence (F = 6.162, p = .014, η² = .029), relatedness (F = 7.479, p = .007, η² = .034), emotional recognition (F = .7314, p = .007, η² = .034), emotional control and regulation (F = 12.132, p = .001, η² = .055), and satisfaction with life (F = 13.551, p <.001, η² = .061); and T4, autonomy (F = 8.732 p = .003, η² = .040), competence (F = 13.818, p <.001, η² = .062), relatedness (F = 8.509, p = .004, η² = .039), emotional recognition (F = 7.409, p = .007, η² = .024), emotional control and regulation (F = 13.808, p <.001, η² = .062), and satisfaction with life (F = 7.418, p = .007, η² = .034).

Discussion

The main purpose of this study was to jointly analyze the SEM's effect on students’ motivational, emotional and well-being dimensions, as well as their intention to be physically active. In addition, effects were analyzed according to grade level and gender.

Results partially supported hypothesis 1 (a progressive and significant increase over time in BPN). Significant increases across the year were found on two of the BPNs: autonomy and competence. These results are consistent with earlier research comparing the SEM and traditional methodology (Burgueño et al., 2018; Cuevas et al., 2015; Méndez-Giménez et al., 2015). In the present study, the long-lasting use of the SEM could progressively increase students’ perception of autonomy, regardless of elements such as teaching content, age, and gender. The learning of responsibilities (roles) throughout several seasons, along with more independent decision-making (model's inherent traits), could explain this increase (Perlman and Goc Karp, 2010). Consistent with previous research (Méndez-Giménez et al., 2015), the continuous implementation of the SEM was associated with improvements in students’ competence. Both modified game forms and properly adjusted equipment (inherent to the SEM) are possible explanations for these results (Siedentop et al., 2020). Moreover, interactions according to both grade and gender emerged. That is, improvements in competence over time were greater in 7th-grade students, while it was more pronounced in girls (especially among 10th-grade students). The program could moderate gender-based differences commonly attributed to adolescence (Fraguela-Vale et al., 2020). Contrary to the expected results, no changes were found across the seasons on students’ relatedness. Research has emphasized the SEM's potential for developing peer relationships (Luna et al., 2020a; Penney et al., 2002). It has been stated that role assignment prompted more and better peer interactions (Hastie, 2000). A plausible explanation of our results could be found in the high scores. In fact, among the BPN, relatedness had the highest values in all measurement phases (4.20, 4.17, 4.16, and 4.18, respectively, in T1, T2, T3, and T4).

The second hypothesis prognosticated that students’ self-determined motivation levels would remain high and without significant changes across the year. It was assumed that the SEM would generate an “absorbing effect” of both the fall of self-determined motivation and the raise of amotivation during secondary education (Cecchini et al., 2012; Navarro-Patón et al., 2020; Ntoumanis et al., 2009). Results confirm the hypothesis and strengthen the potential of the SEM for maintaining upper motivational levels through 1-year school programs, especially when the novelty effect of the methodology ceases to be a constant. In addition, a gender effect was found. Self-determined motivation levels reversed during the year with boys suffering a decrease. For their part, girls seem to benefit from the continuous effect of the SEM. Similar results were found by Martínez de Ojeda et al. (2021) with 6th-grade students. They speculated with the antagonistic relationship between school sport, and media paradigm and the philosophy of the SEM (where fair play and values are extolled during competition). This could have caused stronger motivational conflicts on boys, given that they were more involved in extracurricular sports.

Regarding ability EI, results showed significant increases over time in two dimensions: regulation and control, and emotional empathy. These results align with the scarce previous research (Arikan, 2020; Luna et al., 2019; Méndez-Giménez et al., 2017) and support hypothesis 3 (significant increases in students’ EI). Various structures of the model, such as permanent teams, festive environment during competition, and fair play, provide opportunities for students to empathize and to be aware of their emotions and those of their peers and rivals during the game. These findings are important given the close link between EI and positive attitudes toward PA, as well as sport participation (Laborde et al., 2016, 2017). Adolescents involved in SEM programs can learn to regulate and control their emotions. To participate in multiple seasons could give students positive experiences to be more relaxed, control their tension level, recover concentration and make better decisions (Luna et al., 2019, 2020b). Emotion management skills are crucial to be effective students in PE and physical-sports practice (Cecchini et al., 2018). In addition, interactions between emotional control and regulation and grade were found, as well as between this same factor and grade and gender. Seventh-grade students exhibited a significant increase, while 10th-grade students maintained steady levels over the year. Moreover, boys from this last group exhibited greater scores than girls in all phases, whereas values on 7th-grade students were similar among genders. The study conducted by Cecchini et al. (2018), with a sample of 1689 students, from 5th to 11th grade, revealed significant differences in favor of boys, although possible differences according to age or educational stages were not specified. Finally, it could be speculated that emotional recognition, which had the highest mean scores at all times of measurement, had less room for improvement. This ‘ceiling effect’ could have prevented changes in emotional recognition over time.

With respect to hypothesis 4 (no differences in the rest of the variables), no differences were found over time in satisfaction with life nor intention to be physically active. These results should be interpreted as positive based on Goldbeck et al. (2007), who found a significant decrease in 11-to-16 year old adolescents’ satisfaction with life, while girls significantly exhibited lower scores than boys. In addition, several studies highlighted that abandonment of PA increases during adolescence (Cervelló et al., 2007). The fact that self-determined motivation scores remained intact over the year could influence that reported stability. Future experimental studies could explain the potential of the SEM to generate improvements in both variables.

Results showed that positive effects on motivational, emotional, and well-being domains were greater in 7th-grade students (hypothesis 5: higher motivational, emotional, and well-being benefits in 7th-grade students). Between-subject MANOVAs revealed a significant grade effect in all times, except in T1. In addition, as time progressed, differences were found in a greater number of variables. ANOVAs showed the following differences: (a) T1: satisfaction with life; (b) T2: emotional recognition, emotional control and regulation, and satisfaction with life; (c) T3: competence, relatedness, emotional recognition, control and regulation, and satisfaction with life; and (d) T4: autonomy, competence, relatedness, emotional recognition, control and regulation, and satisfaction with life. There is some evidence in the literature of a significant decrease in the satisfaction of BPN with age, especially during adolescence (Cecchini et al., 2012; Navarro-Patón et al., 2018). The authors argued that the methodology used in PE, based on a competitive climate, could be one of the reasons for this decline. On the contrary, in the present study not only did this decline not emerge, but the BPN increased. However, the increase was higher in 7th-grade students, especially in T3 and T4. Based on these data, we conclude that this SEM program had a positive impact on BPN, even among students who were in the most critical phase of adolescence.

Regarding ability EI, differences were found between grades in emotional recognition and emotional control and regulation in T2, T3, and T4. In the first case, they were due to an increase in scores in 7th grade and a decrease in 10th grade, while in the second they were related to an increase only in 7th grade. There is evidence of efficacy and significant improvements in trait EI with the SEM in previous studies (Luna et al., 2019). However, in that study there were only three students aged 15 years or older (10th grade). It is reasonable to speculate that the SEM program could have had a positive impact on 7th-grade students; nonetheless, it is not clear if the drop/stop on 10th grade students had any kind of influence from the model or if there is a developmental reason for it. More research is needed to clarify this issue.

Finally, in line with the findings of Goldbeck et al. (2007), grade-based differences were found in satisfaction with life, at all measurement times. The authors concluded that a decline in life satisfaction should be considered a developmental phenomenon. Our results converge with this body of knowledge, but do not allow us to speculate on a possible methodological effect. Future experimental investigations could determine whether or not this decrease can be cushioned by the effect generated through SEM programs.

Conclusions

This study aimed to jointly analyze the SEM's effect on students’ motivational, emotional, and well-being dimensions, as well as their intention to be physically active. Our results seem to indicate a positive and summative effect of the seasons implemented in this multi-season SEM program in terms of self-determined motivation, BPN, and ability EI on adolescents. A possible positive impact of the SEM on the cognitive dimension of subjective well-being is also speculated, which could prevent the decline observed during adolescence. However, this study has a number of limitations. Firstly, the quasi-experimental design, where intact groups have been selected, while a control group was not used. Thus, the results should be viewed with caution and it limits its generalization to the specific analyzed population and context. In addition, the sample belongs to a single high school, and all groups were taught by a single teacher. Furthermore, the use of self-reported assessment instruments may suffer from social desirability effects. Future studies should include longitudinal and experimental designs with a broad age spectrum.

This manuscript extends a more comprehensive perspective on students’ learning with the SEM. Our findings provide both researchers and practitioners with a more accurate understanding of how important the teacher's methodology is in achieving the learning outcomes of students.

Footnotes

Declaration of conflicting interests

The authors declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iD

Federico Puente-Maxera

Author biographies

Antonio Méndez-Giménez is an associate professor at the Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, University of Oviedo, Spain.

María del Pilar Mahedero-Navarrete is a physical education teacher at the Regional Ministry of Education, Region of Andalusia, Spain.

Federico Puente-Maxera is a physical education teacher at the Regional Ministry of Education, Region of Asturias, Spain.

Diego Martínez de Ojeda is a physical education teacher at the Regional Ministry of Education, Region of Murcia, Spain.

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