A techno-exchange engagement model of social Media engagement: A social exchange and engagement theoretical synthesis

Abstract

This research aims to advance the literature by focusing on tourist engagement on travel social media sites (SNSs). Drawing on social exchange theory and engagement theory, it improvises the techno-exchange engagement model of SNS to highlight the role of trust induced from favorable (e.g. secondary control) and unfavorable (e.g. privacy violation) encounters as well as functional (e.g. perceived ease of use and usefulness) and affective (e.g. perceived enjoyment) technology usage experiences. Based on data acquired from a popular Chinese travel SNS, research findings point to a significant meditational mechanism in the techno-exchange engagement process leading to continuance usage and information sharing intentions. This research not only underscores the duality of the cyber trust-building process, but also showcases means to improve continuous usage of travel SNS through the proposed techno-exchange engagement model.

Keywords

Social network site social media engagement secondary control privacy violation technology acceptance

Introduction

Information and communication technology (ICT) has been prevalent, if not dominant, in travel planning and decision making (Yu et al., 2018; Zhang et al., 2020). Evidence collated from the literature has commonly acknowledged the power of social media in disseminating travel information through user-generated tourism contents as well as in inducing vocation interest and desire (Li et al., 2020; Liu et al., 2020; Wu et al., 2021). Social media sites (SNSs) play a quintessential role in the tourist decision-making process because they empower “tourists and customers alike anywhere around the globe to immerse themselves in the internet… to co-validate business offerings (Huang et al., 2020, p. 707). In other words, SNSs cocreate travel values by reaping benefits from knowledge sharing via travel information coproduced by users and SNS platforms (Edwards et al., 2017; Yost et al., 2021).

Given the importance of attracting tourists to continuous use of a social media platform and to encourage them to share useful information, we sought to answer how this can be achieved through engagement of the SNS. Although customer engagement in the social media context is not new to the literature (Harrigan et al., 2017; Hollebeek et al., 2014; Sashi et al., 2019), study of social media engagement in travel-related SNSs remains relatively new (Yost et al., 2021). In particular, we seek to advance the literature by incorporating two theoretical perspectives from social exchange and engagement streams of work. With respect to the social exchange theoretical perspective (Cropanzano et al., 2017; Nord, 1969), this study aims to link social exchange in cyberspace with respect to how perceived secondary control (Hajli and Lin, 2016; Lee et al., 2013; Morling and Evered, 2006) and privacy violation experience (Hajli and Lin, 2016; Wakefield, 2013) could combine to affect trust in SNS (Zhang et al., 2020), which could further shape tourist engagement with the site. In essence, this line of inquiry works to address a void in the literature given that engagement with SNSs is not well understood in the tourism literature.

Second, we also sought to assess the importance of enjoyment and usability of SNSs for social media engagement in the present inquiry. By unpacking how perceived enjoyment and usability (e.g. perceived ease of use and usefulness) of a SNS can enhance tourist engagement with the site, this research is able to reconcile both the functional and affective role of ICT in inducing user engagement (Kumar et al., 2019). To this end, we draw on engagement theory (Kearsley and Shneiderman, 1998) to highlight such a process. Taken together, we build on both social exchange (Cropanzano et al., 2017; Nord, 1969) and engagement (Brodie et al., 2011b; Kearsley and Shneiderman, 1998) theory to integrate a comprehensive model – techno-exchange engagement model – that showcases a nomological mediation network of social media engagement on travel sites. The term “techno-exchange” entails theoretical saliency of social exchanges that enhance (vs. impede) trust in SNS engagement. In particular, improvisation of the model highlights the duality of positive (secondary control) and negative (privacy violation) experiences in the cyber trust-building process (Zhang et al., 2020). On the other hand, the model complements the technology acceptance model (TAM) by identifying a process that result in users’ continuance usage and sharing intention. This research also advances the secondary control literature by emancipating its role beyond the bricks and mortar setting to the context on tourism sites.

Literature review

The theoretical underpinnings of the present inquiry stem from two streams of work: social exchange theory and engagement theory. In particular, social exchange theory posits reciprocal exchanges of resources between actors “whereby one party tends to repay the good (or something bad) deeds of another party” (Cropanzano et al., 2017, p. 479), hence instilling trust and commitment in the relationship (if the substance of the exchange is positive). From an ICT usage perspective, this theoretical logic points to a technology mediation mechanism in which trust and engagement of a specific ICT (SNS in the present research context) is a manifestation of how well an exchange works between the user and the SNS provider (Li et al., 2020; Zhang et al., 2020). Accordingly, we take into account the duality of positive (e.g. perceived secondary control) (Morling and Evered, 2006) and negative experiences (e.g. privacy violation experience) (Hajli and Lin, 2016; Wakefield, 2013) to synthesize favorable and unfavorable conditions of exchanges.

Given that favorable exchanges among actors could induce positive response from parties, which could lead to engagement of a focal ICT, we draw on engagement theory (Kearsley and Shneiderman, 1998) to highlight why useful and joyful encounters of technology could further improve user engagement. Engagement theory puts emphasis on the motivational appeals of tasks and activities that could intrigue individuals to adopt specific goals (e.g. knowledge, skills, relationships, etc.) through continuous pursuit of a specific task or objective (Hollebeek et al., 2014; Kearsley and Shneiderman, 1998). Accordingly, a technology (e.g. SNS) that is fun, easy to use, and useful certainly entails salient motivational impetus for individuals to continue using it, as well as more motivation to share the benefits of the tool to others when he/she is engaged (Brodie et al., 2011b; Hollebeek, 2011; Huang et al., 2020). This meditational mechanism is further highlighted in Figure 1. We further articulate each hypothesis with the underlying theoretical rationale in subsequent sections as follows.

Figure 1.

The techno-exchange engagement model (TEM).

Perceived secondary control, privacy violation experience, and trust

Defined as the extent to which an individual perceives that they possess controls over the environment (Harb et al., 2019), perceived control is germane to the technology-based environment which embodies controls over usage of their personal information (Hajli and Lin, 2016). We refer to this definition of perceived secondary control as it reflects beliefs in the individual's ability to control and predict outcomes of personal information sharing in a virtual space (Lee et al., 2013). In this sense, perceived secondary control regulates personal information access and disclosure (Phelps et al., 2000). Since such control rests upon one's ability in the determination of personal information sharing, it is contended that information obtained in respect to personal data sharing policies and practices serves as a means to boost perceived secondary control in privacy-concerned circumstances (Pan and Zinkhan, 2006).

Trust in SNS (or trust, hereafter) characterizes one's confidence in believing that social media operators possess high integrity and responsibility in protecting users while adhering to strong regulatory protocols (Leung and Ma, 2020). It signifies the credibility of the websites in the perception of users (Anaya-Sánchez et al., 2019). Prior research has revealed that perceived control is a core component in shaping trust (Hajli and Lin, 2016; Lee et al., 2013). Rooted in social exchange theory (Nord, 1969), a social relationship centers on resource/benefit exchanges in a reciprocal way that is mutually beneficial to the involved parties (Lin and Wong, 2020). Extending this logic to the current inquiry, we argue that empowering users to control secondary usage of their personal data can leave them with favorable impressions about the SNS providers, as these operators place the need for privacy protection as a cornerstone of their business (Mosteller and Poddar, 2017). Privacy protection instills trust, as this relationship becomes equitable with control empowerment initiated from the supply side to provide individuals with better ability to determine what content to share, and with whom, within cyberspace (Lee et al., 2013). The reciprocal side of this relationship concerns favorable returns from users in trusting good deeds of website operators (Pan and Zinkhan, 2006). Accordingly, we posited that:

Hypothesis 1: Perceived secondary control is positively related to trust in a SNS.

In a similar fashion, as a growing distraction of online experience, privacy violation experience stems from undesirable access to personal privacy by a party beyond their control (Wakefield, 2013). Such privacy infringement from the misuse of personal data, particularly in the absence of user consensus, could be devastating (Lee et al., 2013). Importantly, despite perceived secondary control and privacy violation sharing substantial similarity germane to privacy concerns, the former puts emphasis on the perception of individual ability in determining information sharing outcomes, whereas the latter centers on adverse experiences resulting from data breaches (Hajli and Lin, 2016; Wakefield, 2013). With increasing evidence pertaining to breaching incidents, including selling personal information for profits, information privacy is a topic with increased interest in virtual settings (Fong, Lam, and Law, 2017).

Drawing on social exchange theory (Cropanzano et al., 2017), which also posits the negative consequences from undesirable exchanges, distrust often results from delinquent reciprocation among actors. Thus, detrimental activities and experiences can lead to deterioration in relationships, explaining why privacy violation erodes trust (Bansal et al., 2010). Given that personal information in virtual spaces is deemed particularly sensitive, invasion of privacy is thought to impel erosion of credibility. In other words, such violations inhibit the ability of media operators in retaining relationships with users (Martin, 2018). Privacy violation denotes vulnerability and increased risks, compelling users to be skeptical of the trustworthiness of websites (Bansal et al., 2010). It thus hinders the willingness of users to share data, in response to the erosion of credibility (Martin, 2018). Accordingly, we proposed that:

Hypothesis 2: Privacy violation experience is negatively related to trust in social media sites.

Social media engagement

As a core tenet in relationship marketing (Lam and Wong, 2020), customer engagement builds in a cumulative manner, “commencing with customer satisfaction, and culminating in customer loyalty” (Brodie et al., 2011b, p. 106). The centrality of this contention lies in the development of customer engagement as it emerges from strong involvement with repeated satisfaction over time (van Doorn et al., 2010). In the virtual space, Mosteller and Poddar (2017) declare social media engagement to pivot on behavioral engagement intensity, entailing activities social media users engage in, ranging from logging and usage frequencies to personal data completeness. This definition however is extended to incorporate affective elements indicated by, for example, positive online comments (Yost et al., 2021). With strong social media engagement, users are inclined to intensely engage in posting, sharing, liking, and commenting in social networking sites (Chu and Kim, 2011; Huang et al., 2020; Yost et al., 2021).

Trust is considered as an important factor of social media engagement (Yost et al., 2021). Taking a social exchange theoretical perspective, trust is the building block in engendering stronger and deeper social relationships and hence, greater efforts to engage in the relationships. In the field of information and communication technology (ICT), trust is often purported to be a key factor in encouraging bonding between customers and service providers (Li et al., 2020). Luo (2002) notes that trust in technology and technology providers is the very essence of why cyber communication continues its dominance in the world. Empirical evidence indicates that when peoples’ trust is high, they are more actively engaged in social media (de Oliveira Santini et al., 2020). Li et al. (2020) asserted a relationship between trust and engagement such that customers with high levels of trust tend to develop strong relationships with the hosting organization. These prior works closely reflect the trust–relationship commitment relationship that Morgan and Hunt (1994) put forth to highlight the saliency of trust in building a strongly engaged relationship with the provider (Bowden, 2009), since trust plays a key role in relationship management (So et al., 2020), hence further nurturing deeper engaged relationships between two parties, as social exchange theory posits (Cropanzano et al., 2017).

Hypothesis 3: Trust in a social media site is positively related to social media engagement at the site.

To further understand antecedents of social media engagement, we draw on engagement theory (Kearsley and Shneiderman, 1998) to identify how the presence of technology that signifies pleasure, trustworthiness, ease of use, and usefulness could lead to stronger engagement in social media usage. Engagement theory refers to a broad theoretical perspective that describes a process in which people acquire knowledge through meaningful activities (Kearsley and Shneiderman, 1998). The marketing literature extends the concept to reflect customer engagement as “a psychological state, which occurs by virtue of interactive customer experiences with a focal agent/object within specific service relationships” (Brodie et al., 2011a, p. 258). Yet, these diverse definitions share a common connotation to reflect people's devotion to a specific object of interest through socializing, learning, and interactivity (Brodie et al., 2011a), while technology plays a major role in the engagement process. In this study, we identify three technology-related variables that could improve engagement in social media, as detailed below.

Perceived enjoyment, also known as perceived playfulness, refers to “the extent to which the activity of using a certain technology is perceived as being enjoyable in its own right” (Davis et al., 1992, p. 1113). Accordingly, we define perceived enjoyment as reflecting pleasure from using social media for tourism-related purposes. In other words, perceived enjoyment entails an affective cause in galvanizing tourist interest to further devote effort to learn and share about travel information. This notion resonates closely with the central premise of engagement theory, to acknowledge the emotionally induced engagement outcomes through affective means (Harrigan et al., 2017). Perceiving fun and satisfaction in the usage of technology is evident in recent literature, as it leads to strong and lasting customer engagement in the tech-advanced tourism setting (Prentice et al., 2020). Accordingly, we posited the following hypothesis.

Hypothesis 4: Perceived enjoyment is positively related to social media engagement.

This study adopts the technology acceptance model (TAM) (Davis, 1989) to acknowledge the role of perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness in social media engagement. TAM was underscored in the present inquiry over other alternatives not only because it is the most popular and most cited technology-related model in the literature, but also because it provides a rather succinct and yet precise articulation about technology usage (Lai, 2015). In particular, TAM proposes the duality of perceived ease of use and usefulness that underpins people's usage intention regarding new technology (Sun et al., 2020). Here, perceived ease of use is defined as “the degree to which a person believes that using a particular system would be free of effort” (Davis, 1989, p. 320). Davis further defines perceived usefulness as the degree of performance enhancement that a person believes using a particular ICT could help him/her deliver. Ease of usage and usefulness of a specific ICT often results in instant gratification; hence they combine to induce greater desire to further learn about and become acquainted with details about the technology of interest (Luo et al., 2011; Sashi et al., 2019). This premise resonates closely with engagement theory to affirm a relationship between usage of ICT and engagement of the specific technology, social media in particular (Hollebeek et al., 2014). This theoretical lens notions the primary role of technology in assisting learners and users alike to become actively involved in the learning and information exchange process (Kearsley and Shneiderman, 1998), while keeping them highly motivated in further pursuing relevant details about an object or activity of interest (Brodie et al., 2011b). Given that perceived ease of use and usefulness of a given technology signifies positive connotations in the usage process, it follows that users should be more engaged with the ICT of interest when it avails users with favorable perceptions. Accordingly, the following hypotheses were proposed.

Hypothesis 5: Perceived ease of use is positively related to social media engagement.

Hypothesis 6: Perceived usefulness is positively related to social media engagement.

Social media engagement and loyalty intention

Customer loyalty is a core asset enabling operators to sustain a competitive advantage (Masiero et al., 2018). Loyalty is defined as commitment towards a given object, organization, and/or destination (So et al., 2016). Prior to the state of actual loyalty, loyalty intention is deemed equally important in measuring customer loyalty (Lv et al., 2020). Prior research on online loyalty intention has shown that continuance usage and information sharing intentions are crucial behavioral indicators of loyalty intention among users (Hur et al., 2017; Liu et al., 2021). Continuance usage and information sharing entice users to maintain frequent interactions with a given SNS (Hajli and Lin, 2016; Liu et al. 2021). It is therefore vital to consider that such loyalty intentions are especially demanding since SNSs depend heavily upon usage frequency and interactivity to retention their market spots (Hur et al., 2017).

Prior studies have paved the path to explore the relationship between customer engagement and loyalty (e.g. Brodie et al., 2011b; So et al., 2016). It is argued that engaged customers are prone to maintain loyalty status with a given organization (Chu and Kim, 2011). Importantly, since social media engagement characterizes intensity of interactions in virtual configurations exhibited through posting, liking, and commenting in an engaged manner, such interactivity is considered the primary source of inducing customer loyalty (Huang et al., 2021; Hur et al., 2017). In contrast, disengaged users are inclined to discontinue their involvement and usage, moving them to consider alternatives (Yost et al., 2021). Therefore, we assert that social media engagement fosters loyalty intention measured by continuance of usage and information sharing intentions.

Hypothesis 7: Social media engagement is positively related to loyalty intention in the form of continuance usage intentions (7a) and information sharing intentions (7b).

Methods

Data collection and sample

Since social media engagement was the study interest of our inquiry, we recruited Mafengwo as the study platform to aid our understanding of this engagement phenomenon. Mafengwo is one of the most popular Chinese travel social networking websites, functioning comparably to TripAdvisor. It is considered as the travel bible by Chinese travelers, as the platform offers a wide array of contents that could help people to make better travel plans (Leung, 2022). At present, over 100 million users are drawn to this site for posting their travel stories along with photos and videos during a typical day (Pan et al., 2017). Moreover, this social media platform has attracted increasing academic interest, as it is an ideal platform for unraveling an array of research topics, including travel motivations (Wang et al., 2018), travel experience (Zhou, 2020), and revisit intentions (Zhang et al., 2016).

The sample frame of this study was therefore tailored to users of Mafengwo. We further adopted existing scales to measure our study constructs. Measurement items were originally composed in English; yet, since the vast majority of users were Chinese, translations of the measurement items was undertaken. Two tourism scholars who were proficient in both English and Chinese worked on English–Chinese translations in an iterative manner before consensus was achieved. We further performed a pilot test one month prior to the data collection. The pilot test was facilitated by 10 Chinese travel social media users who were recruited to clarify the wording of the measurement items. The finalized questionnaire was designed on an electronic questionnaire platform, Wenjuanxing, where the questionnaire was allowed to be sent in forms of questionnaire links or Quick Response (QR) codes.

Following a convenience sampling approach, respondents were approached as field investigators sent the questionnaire links to popular Chinese social media platforms, including Weibo, Zhihu, and our main source, WeChat. Given that the name list in WeChat was presented in alphabetical order, we adopted a systematic sampling to approach every third person within our contact lists. A cover letter detailing the purpose of the study was sent in the initial stage of approaching a given respondent; this was important to convey the confidentiality and anonymity of the survey. Upon agreement, the questionnaire links and/or QR codes were sent directly to each respondent. In the beginning section of the questionnaire, two filter questions were allocated to ensure the qualification of the respondents. Filter questions were designed to ensure each respondent (1) was a user of Mafengwo at the time of data collection and (2) had an experience in searching for travel information at this website for their travel plans. The electronic questionnaire platform only granted qualified respondents to proceed with the questionnaire, while disqualified respondents were otherwise dropped from the questionnaire immediately.

Despite a total of 1653 respondents who participated in the survey, over 65% were excluded, attributed to the aforementioned filter questions. As a result, 569 samples were retained, corresponding to a 34.4% response rate. After careful examination of the data, 500 valid and complete responses were used for data analysis, while the remaining data were either incomplete or inconsistent. Among 500 respondents, 65.2% were female; 65.4% were bachelor degree holders; over 80% of respondents were between the age of 21 and 40; 6.2% reported they spent less than 1 h on smart phones per day, while 58.0% spent 1–3 h on an average day. Details of the characteristics of the sample are summarized in Table 1.

Table 1.

Characteristics of the sample.

Variables	Frequencies	Percentages
Sex
Male	174	34.8%
Female	326	65.2%
Educational levels
Primary school	2	0.4%
Secondary school	50	10.0%
Vocational school	80	16.0%
Bachelor's degree	327	65.4%
Master's degree and above	41	8.2%
Age
<21	54	10.8%
21–30	307	61.4%
31–40	130	26.0%
41–50	0	0.00%
51–60	8	1.6%
Above 60	1	0.2%
Time spent on smart phone in a day
<1 h	31	6.2%
1–3 h	290	58.0%
4–6 h	120	24.0%
Over 6 h	59	11.8%

Measures

Perceived secondary control, privacy violation experience, and trust in social media websites. These three scales were adopted from Mosteller and Poddar (2017). Perceived secondary control (of personal information) contained three items, privacy violation experience incorporated two items, and trust in social media websites was measured using four items. Each item was rated on a 7-point Likert scale with 1 denoting “strongly disagree” and 7 denoting “strongly agree.” Items for perceived secondary control were presented in Table 2, including the statement, “Mafengwo allows me to control who can get access to my personal information.” Items for privacy violation experience included the statement, “My personal information was used by Mafengwo without my authorization.” Items for trust in social media websites included the statement, “I believe Mafengwo acts with my best interests in mind.”

Table 2.

Constructs and measurement items.

Constructs	Measurement items
Perceived secondary control	Mafengwo allows me to control who can get access to my personal information.
	Mafengwo allows me to control what kind of my personal information can be accessed by other people.
	Mafengwo allows me to control how my personal information can be used by third parties.
Privacy violation experience	My personal information was used by Mafengwo without my authorization.
Privacy violation experience	I have felt a personal invasion of privacy by Mafengwo.
Trust in social media websites	I feel I can trust Mafengwo.
	I feel comfortable using Mafengwo to connect with my friends and family.
	I believe Mafengwo is truthful in their dealing with me.
	I believe Mafengwo acts with my best interests in mind.
Perceived ease of use	It will be impossible to use Mafengwo without expert help.
	Learning to operate Mafengwo is easy for me.
	It is difficult to learn how to use Mafengwo.
	I find it easy to get Mafengwo to do what I want it to do.
	It takes too long a time to learn to use Mafengwo.
	It is easy to remember how to use Mafengwo.
	Using Mafengwo requires a lot of mental effort.
	My interaction with Mafengwo is clear and understandable.
	It is easy for me to become skillful at using Mafengwo.
Perceived usefulness	Using Mafengwo enables me to have more accurate tourist information.
	Using Mafengwo enables me to access a lot of tourist information.
	Using Mafengwo enables me to access the newest tourist information.
	Using Mafengwo enables me to acquire high quality tourist information.
Perceived enjoyment	Disgusting—Enjoyable
	Dull—Exciting
	Unpleasant—Pleasant
	Boring—Interesting
Social media engagement	When I travel, I post pictures on Mafengwo to share my journey(s).
	I log on Mafengwo at least one time per day.
	If a website asks me to log in using my social media website credentials (e.g. My account of Mafengwo) I generally do so.
	My profile in Mafengwo is complete in all respects and includes my taste in music, movies, teams, relationships etc.
Continuance usage intentions	I intend to continue using Mafengwo rather than discontinue its use.
	My intentions are to continue using Mafengwo than use any alternative means.
	If I could, I would like to continue my use of Mafengwo.
Information sharing intentions	I expect to share travel review contributed by other users in Mafengwo.
	I intend to share travel information in Mafengwo in the future.
	I plan to share travel information in Mafengwo regularly.

Perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness. We adopted scales from Moon and Kim (2001), with nine items measuring perceived ease of use, and four items measuring perceived usefulness. The 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) was used to rate the items. Example items for perceived ease of use included, “Learning to operate Mafengwo is easy for me.” An item of perceived usefulness was stated as, “Using Mafengwo enables me to have more accurate tourist information.”

Perceived enjoyment. Four items measuring perceived enjoyment were borrowed from van der Heijden (2004). Perceived enjoyment was rated upon a 5-point bipolar scale ranging from 1 (disgusting; dull; unpleasant; and boring) to 5 (enjoyable; exciting; pleasant; and interesting).

Social media engagement. We adopted a four-item scale from Mosteller and Poddar (2017) to measure social media engagement. Each item was evaluated using a 9-point bipolar scale ranging from 1 (never do) to 9 (always do). Items for social media engagement included the statement, “When I travel, I post pictures on Mafengwo to share my journey(s).”

Continuance usage intentions and information sharing intentions. Each construct was measured using a three-item scale developed by Hur et al. (2017). We used a 9-point anchor ranging from 1 (extremely unlikely) to 9 (extremely likely) to rate each item. An item of continuance usage intentions was stated as, “I intend to continue using Mafengwo rather than discontinue its use.” Items for information sharing intentions included, “I intend to share travel information in Mafengwo in the future.”

Furthermore, construct reliability was evident, as Cronbach's alpha values of the study constructs ranged between 0.69 and 0.90. Likewise, composite reliability values were in the range between 0.75 and 0.90. Although the alpha value of one construct falls below .70, it still demonstrates acceptance scale reliability given that it is above .60, while its composite reliability is .75. Validity tests were performed with average variance extracted (AVE) values between 0.50 and 0.73, suggesting convergent validity. The square root AVE values surpassed correlations between constructs of interest and thus, discriminant validity was evident. Measurement model fit was further assessed, and results indicated an acceptable fit; as comparative fit index (CFI) > 0.95, normed fit index (NFI) > 0.95, standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) < 0.10, and root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) < 0.10.

Multicollinearity was not a major issue in this research, as all variance inflation factors were below 2.0. Common method bias (CMB) was alleviated using an array of anchoring techniques, such as deploying a 5-point bipolar scale, a 7-point Likert scale, and a 9-point bipolar scale. We also depended on the marker variable approach by recruiting forgiveness – a theoretically unrelated construct measured using a three-item scale taken from Rye et al. (2001), so as to statistically control for CMB. Results indicated that CMB was not a threat in this study, as inclusion of forgiveness did not significantly alter the study relationships.

Findings

A preliminary analysis shows that correlational relationships between constructs of interest are significant (see Table 3). We utilized AMOS to perform hypothesis testing based upon the structural equation modeling analytical approach. The structural model evidently fits the data well, as CFI = 0.97, NFI = 0.95, and RMSEA = 0.08.

Table 3.

Descriptive statistics and construct correlations.

	Mean	S.D.	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
1. Perceived secondary control	4.27	0.67	0 . 82
2. Privacy violation experience	3.46	1.43	−0.13**	0 . 79
3. Trust in social media websites	4.94	1.20	0.32**	−0.27**	0 . 81
4. Perceived ease of use	4.25	0.35	0.10*	−0.17**	0.30**	0 . 71
5. Perceived usefulness	5.53	0.89	0.24**	−0.28**	0.54**	0.22**	0 . 75
6. Perceived enjoyment	3.72	0.80	0.21**	−0.22**	0.48**	0.12**	0.52**	0 . 77
7. Social media engagement	4.99	2.23	0.09*	−0.08 ^n.s.	0.48**	0.19**	0.32**	0.32**	0 . 76
8. Continuance usage intentions	6.59	1.53	0.23**	−0.19**	0.60**	0.23**	0.67**	0.52**	0.50**	0 . 85
9. Information sharing intentions	6.36	1.76	0.25**	−0.12**	0.62**	0.24**	0.58**	0.45**	0.57**	0.74**	0.84

Note: ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05, n.s. denotes not significant.

S.D. = standard deviation.

The square root of AVE values are presented on the diagonals.

Hypothesis 1 posits that perceived secondary control of personal information is positively related to trust in a social media website. Results presented in Table 4 suggest that this relationship is supported, as β = 0.46 (p < 0.001). Hypothesis 2 posits that privacy violation experience is negatively related to trust in social media websites. Results suggest that privacy violation experience can lead to distrust in social media websites (β = -0.38, p < 0.001), in support of the hypothesis.

Table 4.

Results of path estimates.

	Trust in social media websites	Social media engagement	Continuance usage intentions	Information sharing intentions
Perceived secondary control	0.46***
Privacy violation experience	−0.38***
Trust in social media websites		0.44***
Perceived enjoyment		0.12*
Perceived ease of use		0.21**
Perceived usefulness		0.21*
Social media engagement			0.84***	0.88***
R² (trust in social media websites)	0.42
R² (social media engagement)		0.54
R² (continuance usage intentions)			0.64
R² (information sharing intentions)				0.75

Note: *** p < 0.001, ** p < 0.01, * p < 0.05.

Hypothesis 3 postulates that trust in social media websites positively influences social media engagement. Results indicate that trust in social media websites promotes one's social media engagement (β = 0.44, p < 0.001) and thus, Hypothesis 3 is supported. Hypothesis 4 proposes that perceived enjoyment positively affects social media engagement. This hypothesized relationship is supported, as β = 0.12 (p < 0.05) and hence, perceived enjoyment is able to nurture social media engagement.

Hypotheses 5 and 6 assert that perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness of social media positively affect social media engagement. Results evidence that perceived ease of use has a positive effect on social media engagement (β = 0.21, p < 0.01). Likewise, perceived usefulness is also positively related to social media engagement (β = 0.21, p < 0.05), in support of the hypotheses. In other words, perceived ease of use and perceived usefulness play an important role in promoting social media engagement.

Hypothesis 7a postulates that social media engagement positively affects continuance usage intentions. This hypothesis is supported, as β = 0.84 (p < 0.001), suggesting that social media engagement reinforces continuance usage intentions. Hypothesis 7b posits that social media engagement is positively related to information sharing intentions. Results indicate that social media engagement is a crucial factor in influencing information sharing intentions (β = 0.88, p < 0.001); hence, the hypothesis is supported.

The mediating effect was also assessed in AMOS using the serial mediating analysis. Results further support the serial mediating effect between privacy violation experience and continuance usage intentions (privacy violation experience → trust in social media websites → social media engagement → continuance usage intentions), with β = -0.13 (p < 0.001, 95% CI = [-0.22, −0.09]). Likewise, the serial mediating effect between privacy violation experience and information sharing intentions (privacy violation experience → trust in social media websites → social media engagement → information sharing intentions) is also warranted, as β = -0.18 (p < 0.001, 95% CI = [-0.27, −0.11]).

Discussion

The present study explores a nomological network of relationships leading from perceived secondary control and privacy violation experience to continuance usage intentions and information sharing intentions through the mediation of social media trust and engagement. Three technology usage factors – perceived enjoyment, ease of use, and usefulness of SNS – were also assessed to better understand their roles in tourist engagement at travel SNSs. Results from structural equation modeling reveal that all the hypothesized relationships are supported, while the mediation process of trust and engagement in SNS is also supported through the Process Macro. The proposed model – techno-exchange engagement model – in Figure 1 suggests a number of theoretical and practical implications on the literature, as detailed below.

Theoretical implications

The technology acceptance model (TAM) is a powerful and robust model for predicting user acceptance of information systems (Yang et al., 2017). However, some researchers (e.g. Davis et al., 1989; Moon and Kim, 2001) have acknowledged the incompleteness of TAM and call for TAM extensions with specific variables in specific contexts. In fact, what happens when people have already used the technology? This question hints at the limitation of TAM in repeat usage of ICT. In addressing this literature void, we proposed a mediation mechanism leading to continuous usage of the technology (social media site). In particular, we add to the literature by taking TAM into account for usage continuation through the lens of user engagement. In other words, this inquiry opens a new avenue of research about continuous usage of technology through the lens of engagement theory (Brodie et al., 2011b; Kearsley and Shneiderman, 1998). This new research avenue goes beyond technology acceptance (Fong et al., 2017; Lai, 2015) and social media engagement (Hollebeek et al., 2014; Li et al., 2020) to underscore the role of usage enjoyment as well as the conative outcomes of media engagement. By further adding the social exchange perspective into the model, we are able to elucidate how favorable and unfavorable exchanges could simultaneously influence the trust–engagement relationship in the context of SNSs. These novel insights discerned from the present inquiry thus lay the necessary foundation for future research to extend the proposed model to better understand future ICTs usage in the tourism setting.

In a similar vein, our improvisation of the techno-exchange engagement model (TEM) points to other subtle incremental advancements to the literature. For example, we are able to incorporate the concept of secondary control (Morling and Evered, 2006), adopted from the psychology literature, into tourism social media research to identify the positive perceptions tourists hold in controlling usage of their personal information. This definition certainly goes beyond the limited usage of secondary control in the psychology field of studies that commonly focuses on how “people adjust some aspects of the self and accept circumstances as they are” (Morling and Evered, 2006, p. 269). We also take into account privacy violation experience (Hajli and Lin, 2016; Wakefield, 2013) as an inhibitor of trust in cyberspace to better understand tourists’ trust negotiation process. Such experience renders as a salient devastation to building a trustworthy relationship in the SNS engagement process, through illumination of our TEM model. By incorporating both variables as antecedents of trust, we are able to put forth both positive and negative experiences encountered from interactions with SNS through the lens of secondary control and privacy violation. This duality in the trust-building process paints a more comprehensive picture about the complexity of trust fortification in the virtual world. In other words, this study adds to the tourism trust literature (Choi et al., 2019; Zhang et al., 2020) by showcasing the perils of trust development in cyberspace.

Social exchange theory has long been recognized as a popular theoretical perspective that helps to explain diverse social phenomena and inform research models across disciplines (Cropanzano et al., 2017). Critiques from Cropanzano et al. point to the limited usage of social exchange theory where it often centers merely on positive or negative exchanges without taking both into consideration. Taking this critique in account, the present investigation heeds the call from prior literature to put emphasis on the pros and cons of the social exchange process. In particular, our inquiry stresses the importance of trust building through negative and positive encounters of prior exchanges. We also draw on engagement theory (Kearsley and Shneiderman, 1998) to unpack the notion of techno-exchange engagement to pinpoint the role of the technology-mediated trust-building process along with enjoyment and usage considerations in developing deeper engagement with social media. By fusing theoretical premises from both social exchange and engagement theoretical perspectives, our research is able to synthesize a more precise predictive model that could aid scholars to assess the dynamics of technology engagement through reciprocity in social networks. Such insights from both theories further aid tourism literature to understand how these two theoretical lenses could better account for prolonged social commerce behaviors in the tourism setting.

Managerial implications

Given that users’ privacy concerns render transgression in trust and thus negative e-word of mouth, it should deserve more attention with efforts to avoid such experiences. Travel SNSs should provide more transparent privacy policies and offer more information about how users’ personal data are accessed by third parties, so as to reinforce users’ perception of secondary control of their information. This issue is particular salient for SNSs (e.g. Facebook and Instagram) that have a history of intrusion of user privacy. Privacy infringement is expensive; as Facebook, for example, was penalized US$5 billion in a recent court case. Beyond the monetary loss in such instances, SNSs also face grief and apprehension from users. These complications certainly undermine trust and engagement given the findings of the present study.

The advent and popularity of the metaverse could bring a new wave of privacy concerns, as users may question their secondary control of their “second social life” in the so-called Horizon Worlds. In fact, virtual tourism and metaverse-like cyber interactions impose greater challenges, not only in terms of the aforementioned privacy and secondary control concerns; they also raise question about usability and flow experiences. Our findings lay the necessary background for understanding the complications of these issues by acknowledging that technology engagement requires these elements to work hand in hand. For example, advanced functionality and navigation assistance provided by SNSs could improve user experiences, while vivid imagery along with animations and other features could also enhance user enjoyment. Ctrip is a case in point. The company's improvisation of travel information through an Instagram-like interface is able to entice a high-level user experience. Mafengwo has also launched a program to lure younger customers to engage with its sites through anchoring Chinese teen idols with their travel photos and blogs. The initiative successfully attracted interest from generation Zers with over 200 million views. These social media programs thus tap into a new avenue that could improve engagement of fickle consumers, who pay more attention to their peers than to service providers.

Although the aforementioned marketing tactics are tangential to the primary tenet of the present study, implications learned from these stories could help improve people's engagement with specific SNSs, while nurturing potential travelers’ interest in continued usage of the sites through continuous enjoyment of the site's useful information. In other words, engagement with SNSs relies not only on providers’ technical expertise and functionality, but also on providers’ ability to reconnect fickle consumers and others through an infotainment system that contains a combination of information and fun attributes. Tourism-related infotainment thus can provoke potential travelers with pleasure and necessary information to make better travel decisions. The advent of electronic vehicles along with advanced build-in infotainment system could offer a new travel avenue. SNSs could work with Google, for example, to improvise better travel-related infotainment that could promote more convenient travel options within charging distance or along viable routes connected by chargers. A game-like environment for such an infotainment system could also promote enjoyment, ease of use, and usefulness, leading to greater engagement with such information. Gamification of travel information should further facilitate continued usage of the platform, while reaping greater affective experiences for users and tourists alike.

However, social media engagement and hence, continuance usage intentions and information sharing intentions could also raise moral concerns over online addictions and other negative consequences. The science fiction movie Ready Player One provides an excellent case in point. The film was another Steven Spielberg masterpiece, which highlights humanity in 2045 living in a dystopia whilst the population is seeking escape through a metaverse. Although such an environment provides endless entertainment to users, their obsession with the virtual universe results in severe addiction and social alienation. Detrimental health and mental conditions thus result from continuous usage of such apparatus and could be devastating to regular social behaviors. Accordingly, operators should offer precautionary advice (e.g. take regular breaks and follow other health tips) to patrons to balance social media usage and corporeal life. Doing so also opens up new business collaboration opportunities between social media platforms and tourism/hospitality operators to improvise product bundles that could provide both virtual and corporeal travel options depending on the severity of the COVID-19 resurgence.

Limitations and future research directions

Findings of this study must be interpreted in light of their limitations. First, this study undertook a cross-sectional design and hence, implications on a deeper and prolonged social exchange process may be limited. In other words, social media engagement may require a longer time frame to develop into its full form. Accordingly, future research is encouraged to take a longitudinal design by modeling changes in engagement along with its growth trajectory. Second, the research context is limited to Chinese users. Given that Chinese tourists are more technologically ready to use ICTs, results may have cross-cultural differences in other regions with tourists who are less prepared to fully embrace ICTs in the travel decision-making process. This issue thus opens a new avenue of research that takes technology readiness and everyday usage into consideration. Third, we only take account of variables that nicely blend with the two theoretical lenses that ground the present study. Going beyond social exchange and engagement theories, we believe that there are a number of factors that could be explored in our proposed techno-exchange engagement paradigm, including a number of boundary conditions stemming from branding literature (e.g. SNS brand image and brand equity) and online social media ratings and commentaries. These conditioning factors could be classified into subjective and objective measures (Wen et al., 2021), which may help to provide greater precision about the socio-technical influences from cyber community to individual tourists.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

This research is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (No. 72074230).

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, (grant number 72074230).

ORCID iDs

IpKin Anthony Wong

Zhiwei (CJ) Lin

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