6 x 40 mins exercise improves body image,even though body weight and shape do not change

Abstract

Body weight, shape and body image were assessed in 16 males and 18 females before and after both 6 x 40 mins exercise and 6 x 40 mins reading. Over both conditions, body weight and shape did not change. Various aspects of body image, however, improved after exercise compared to before, while no changes were found over reading. These findings have implications for exercise promotion where a possible role for body image in exercise adherence is suggested, and confirm current theories of body image, where changes in body image are mediated by body perceptions as opposed to actual body indices.

Keywords

body image body shape body size exercise health promotion health psychology

Introduction

The health benefits of exercise or physical activity are many, varied and well known. Exercise has been associated with reduced risk from cardiovascular disease, stroke and hypertension, increased longevity, improved weight control, muscle strength and bone strength, and improved mood, sleep and performance on cognitive tasks (e.g. Warburton et al., 2006). Exercise programmes initiated by oneself however are often undertaken for an inadequate period of time for health benefits to be achieved (Annesi, 2007; Annesi and Unruh, 2007). Early drop out from exercise is often thought to result from a lack of enjoyment, perceptions of a lack of ability and/or perceptions of insubstantial changes in body shape, size and weight (Annesi, 2007; Annesi and Unruh, 2007; Martin and Lichtenberger, 2002; Williams, 2008). Changes in perceptions of ability and changes in body weight and shape sufficient to be noticed and attributed to the exercise are thought to occur only after approx. 10–12 effective sessions (Hazeldine, 2000; McArdle et al., 1996). Enjoyment similarly while often high in the first one, two or three sessions can quickly dwindle (Hazeldine, 2000; McArdle et al., 1996), and combined with inadequate additional reward in terms of changes in ability, shape or weight can result in early drop out (Annesi, 2007; Annesi and Unruh, 2007; Martin and Lichtenberger, 2002; Williams, 2008).

Changes in body image, however, if these occur early following the initiation of an exercise programme, and if these are highlighted, may have the potential to protect against this early drop out. Several recent reviews and systematic reviews suggest that exercise can have a positive impact on body image (Duijts et al., 2011; Hausenblas and Fallon, 2006; Martin and Lichtenberger, 2002), where exercise has been found to result in ‘a small [but significant] effect indicating that exercise interventions resulted in improvements in body image compared to a controlled group’ (Campbell and Hausenblas, 2009: 786). The interventions in these reviews however typically last for at least four weeks (Campbell and Hausenblas, 2009), a period over which changes in body shape, size and weight are also likely to occur (Hazeldine, 2000; McArdle et al., 1996). Improvements in body image as a result of exercise are suggested to result from improvements in perceptions of body shape and fitness, self-esteem and self-efficacy, alongside improvements in actual body shape and body fitness (Andersen et al., 2010; Cash, 2002; Sonstroem and Morgan, 1989; Sonstroem et al., 1994). These variables, however, are highly interrelated and often difficult to distinguish between. A clear role for improvements in body image in the absence of changes in body weight and shape, however, could highlight a means by which individuals can potentially be encouraged to sustain an exercise programme beyond the initial few weeks.

This study aimed to investigate the effects of two weeks of cardiovascular exercise on body image. The exercise was designed to mimic the initial two weeks of an exercise programme as initiated by oneself (three sessions of 40 mins exercise per week), and was intended to be sufficiently short that changes to body weight and shape were unlikely to occur. It was hypothesized that six sessions of 40 mins exercise would result in no change in body weight or shape compared to no exercise, and that six sessions of 40 mins exercise would result in changes in body image compared to no exercise.

Method

Design

The study was undertaken using a repeated measures design where body weight, shape and body image were assessed before and after both two weeks of exercise and two weeks of no exercise. Repeated measures design was used to minimize the effects of participant characteristics which would otherwise occur using an independent groups design (Coolican, 1990). The two weeks of exercise was presented to participants in the study as ‘two weeks of exercise’ – not as the first two weeks of an exercise programme, and to guard against expectancy effects, participants were fully informed at the start of the study that all participants would take part in both exercise and no exercise conditions, and that the order of conditions was determined by the experimenter prior to participant involvement. Order of conditions was counterbalanced across all participants and within males and females. To ensure against carry over effects a wash-out period of two weeks was implemented between conditions.

Participants

Thirty-four participants took part in the study – 16 males and 18 females. This number of participants is sufficient to detect a clinically significant change in body shape or size of approx. 5% (2–3cm, 2–3kg) assuming a standard deviation in change of 10%, or a change in body image score of 10% (0.5 point on a five-point scale) assuming a standard deviation in change of 20%, at a power of 0.9 (Howell, 1997). Males and females were included to increase the value of the study. While body image is often of greater concern to females than males (Campbell and Hausenblas, 2009), body image-related issues are becoming more common among males (Campbell and Hausenblas, 2009; Chittester and Hausenblas, 2009), and exercise is a frequent result of body image concerns among males (Chittester and Hausenblas, 2009; Hausenblas and Fallon, 2002). All participants were sedentary at the start of the study, with no known conditions thought to preclude or be exacerbated by increased activity, as assessed using the American Heart Association/American College of Sports Medicine Physical Activity Pre-participation Questionnaire (American Heart Association/American College of Sports Medicine, 1989). Participants were informed that the study was about the effects of 6 x 40 mins exercise on various body-related parameters. Ethical approval for the study was given by the Ethics Committee of the School of Psychology, Queen’s University, Belfast, prior to commencement.

Exercise

All participants undertook six sessions of moderate intensity activity for 40 mins over a two-week period (one session per day, three sessions per week). Participants were free to participate in any gym-based cardiovascular activity of their choice so long as this was at a minimum of moderate intensity and for at least 40 mins during each session. Moderate intensity was operationalized as an exercise intensity capable of resulting in shortness of breath and perspiration in the individual. Free choice of exercise was used to mimic more closely an exercise programme initiated by oneself, and hence enhance ecological validity. Exercise sessions could include additional lower intensity activities (warm-ups, cool downs, stretching, etc.), if this was desired, but these were not included in the 40 mins of moderate intensity activity. All exercise sessions were monitored by a researcher to ensure participation at adequate intensity and duration.

No exercise

All participants also undertook six sessions of sedentary reading for 40 mins over a two-week period (one session per day, three sessions per week). Participants were free to participate in any reading of their choice so long as this was for at least 40 mins during each session. Free choice of reading was again undertaken to mimic more closely everyday life, and hence maintain high ecological validity. Reading was undertaken in the same location as the exercise (i.e. at the gym), to allow all sessions also to be monitored. All sessions were monitored by a researcher to ensure compliance.

Body weight, shape and body image

Body weight, shape and body image were measured at the start and end of each two-week period. Body weight was measured using standard body weight scales (Salter Housewares, Tonbridge, Kent, UK). Body shape was measured by assessment of chest, waist and hip circumferences using a standard tape measure. Body image was assessed using the 69-item version of the Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ) (Cash, 2000). The MBSRQ is a well-tested measure of body image composed of 10 scales:

Appearance Evaluation – satisfaction with one’s appearance and physical looks;

Appearance Orientation – the importance and investment in one’s appearance;

Fitness Evaluation – perceptions of one’s self as physically fit, toned and active;

Fitness Orientation – the importance and investment in one’s fitness;

Health Evaluation – perceptions of one’s self as physically healthy and free from illness;

Health Orientation – importance or investment in one’s physical health;

Illness Orientation – reactivity to illness or physical symptoms;

Body Areas Satisfaction – satisfaction with discrete aspects of one’s appearance;

Overweight Preoccupation – reflection of fat anxiety, weight vigilance, dieting, eating restraint;

Self-Classified Weight – perceptions of one’s weight from underweight– overweight.

All scales are assessed using a number of items, to which participants respond on a five-point scale consisting of ‘strongly disagree’, ‘disagree’, ‘neither agree nor disagree’, ‘agree’ and ‘strongly agree’ (scored 1–5), with the exception of the Body Areas Satisfaction scale, where participants report their satisfaction with a number of body areas on a five-point scale composed of response options ‘very dissatisfied’, ‘mostly dissatisfied’, ‘neither satisfied nor dissatisfied’, ‘mostly satisfied’ and ‘very satisfied’ (score 1–5). For all evaluation scales and the Body Areas Satisfaction scale, higher scores denote greater satisfaction. For all orientation scales, higher scores denote a greater importance or investment. For the Overweight Preoccupation scale, higher scores denote a greater anxiety and vigilance. For the Self-Classified Weight scale, higher scores denote a greater perceived weight. Use of the 69-item MBSRQ allowed assessment of various concepts thought to mediate the relationship between exercise and body image, namely perceptions of body weight (Self-Classified Weight scale), fitness (Fitness Evaluation scale) and health (Health Evaluation scale), and allowed comparison with norms from similar populations (Cash, 2000). Appropriate permissions were obtained prior to use of the MBSRQ.

Procedure

All participants completed both exercise and no exercise conditions in a counterbalanced order. For each condition, participants completed all measures of body weight, shape and body image, undertook 6 x 40 mins exercise/no exercise over two weeks, and then again completed all measures of body weight, shape and body image. Participants were asked to maintain their otherwise usual behaviour throughout the study (i.e. not to undertake additional exercise outside of the exercise sessions), but exercise outside of the study was not monitored. Anecdotal comments however suggested that exercise was not undertaken outside of study sessions.

Analyses

Body weight, shape and body image data were analysed using 2x2x2 ANOVA investigating differences between before vs after, exercise vs no exercise, in males vs females. MANOVA was not used due to the likely high co-linearity between many of the dependent measures (body parameters and body image scales), particularly over repeated time points (Howell, 1997).

Results

All participants undertook all exercise and no exercise sessions as requested. Mean (and standard deviation) body weight, shape and body image for males and females before and after exercise and no exercise conditions are shown in Table 1. Mean values for body weight, shape and body image are similar to or slightly lower than population norms (Cash, 2000).

Table 1.

Mean (and standard deviation) body weight, shape and body image for males and females before and after exercise and no exercise conditions

	Males (N=16)				Females (N=18)				ANOVA results and effects
	Exercise		No exercise		Exercise		No exercise		Exercise x time	Gender
	Before	After	Before	After	Before	After	Before	After
Body weight (kg)	70.9 (11.8)	70.9 (11.8)	71.1 (11.7)	70.4 (12.9)	63.8 (5.6)	62.1 (9.3)	63.9 (5.6)	63.9 (5.3)	F(1, 32)=0.24, p=.63	F(1, 32)=5.42, p=.03. Higher in males than in females
Chest circumference (cm)	91.6 (9.2)	93.2 (8.1)	92.9 (8.2)	92.8 (7.9)	88.9 (9.3)	88.8 (9.3)	88.5 (9.8)	88.4 (9.4)	F(1, 32)=0.91, p=.36	F(1, 32)=1.71, p=.20
Waist circumference (cm)	83.7 (8.3)	82.3 (7.4)	82.7 (7.3)	83.5 (8.1)	75.7 (5.1)	75.6 (5.1)	76.0 (5.5)	75.6 (5.6)	F(1, 32)=1.85, p=.18	F(1, 32)=10.81, p<.01. Higher in males than in females
Hip circumference (cm)	94.3 (7.9)	94.0 (6.8)	94.4 (6.9)	94.7 (6.5)	101.5 (3.9)	101.6 (3.6)	101.4 (4.3)	101.6 (4.2)	F(1, 32)=0.31, p=.58	F(1, 32)=14.22, p<.01. Lower in males than in females
MBSRQ – Appearance Evaluation (Males: α=0.76, Females: α=0.72)	3.1 (0.5)	3.4 (0.4)	3.3 (0.5)	3.0 (0.6)	2.9 (0.6)	3.4 (0.5)	3.0 (0.6)	2.9 (0.6)	F(1, 32)=18.77, p<.01. Increases with exercise, decreases with no exercise	F(1, 32)=1.08, p=.31
MBSRQ – Appearance Orientation (Males: α=0.72, Females: α=0.79)	3.0 (0.5)	3.2 (0.6)	3.2 (0.6)	3.0 (0.5)	3.6 (0.4)	3.5 (0.3)	3.6 (0.4)	3.7 (0.4)	F(1, 32)=1.18, p=.29	F(1, 32)=12.83, p<.01. Lower in males than in females
MBSRQ – Fitness Evaluation (Males: α=0.62, Females: α=0.68)	3.6 (0.7)	4.0 (0.5)	4.0 (0.6)	3.6 (0.7)	2.9 (0.5)	3.4 (0.3)	2.9 (0.4)	3.0 (0.4)	F(1, 32)=11.64, p<.01. Increases with exercise, no change with no exercise	F(1, 32)=25.39, p<.01. Higher in males than in females
MBSRQ – Fitness Orientation (Males: α=0.89, Females: α=0.78)	2.7 (0.6)	3.3 (0.7)	3.1 (0.7)	2.8 (0.7)	3.3 (1.1)	3.9 (0.8)	3.1 (0.9)	3.1 (1.0)	F(1, 32)=7.10, p=.01. Increases with exercise, no change with no exercise	F(1, 32)=2.14, p=.15
MBSRQ – Health Evaluation (Males: α=0.58, Females: α=0.64)	3.8 (0.3)	3.9 (0.6)	3.8 (0.5)	3.6 (0.5)	3.3 (0.7)	3.6 (0.6)	3.3 (0.7)	3.2 (0.6)	F(1, 32)=9.63, p<.01. Increases with exercise, no change with no exercise	F(1, 32)=7.27, p=.01. Higher in males than in females
MBSRQ – Health Orientation (Males: α=0.58, Females: α=0.75)	2.8 (0.6)	3.0 (0.6)	3.0 (0.7)	3.0 (1.3)	2.9 (0.7)	3.2 (0.7)	2.9 (0.7)	2.9 (0.6)	F(1, 32)=2.07, p=.16	F(1, 32)=0.01, p=.93
MBSRQ – Illness Orientation (Males: α=0.75, Females: α=0.72)	2.5 (0.7)	2.8 (0.8)	2.9 (0.8)	2.6 (0.7)	2.8 (1.0)	3.4 (1.0)	2.9 (1.1)	3.2 (1.0)	F(1, 32)=7.14, p=.01. Increases with exercise, no change with no exercise	F(1, 32)=1.72, p=.20
MBSRQ – Body areas satisfaction (Males: α=0.26, Females: α=0.45)	3.2 (0.3)	3.5 (0.4)	3.5 (0.6)	3.2 (0.3)	3.1 (0.7)	3.7 (0.5)	3.3 (0.5)	3.2 (0.5)	F(1, 32)=30.51, p<.01. Increases with exercise, decreases with no exercise	F(1, 32)=0.58, p=.81
MBSRQ – Overweight Preoccupation (Males: α=0.69, Females: α=0.73)	1.6 (0.4)	1.8 (0.6)	1.8 (0.7)	1.7 (0.6)	2.6 (0.9)	2.5 (0.6)	2.6 (0.8)	2.6 (0.7)	F(1, 32)=1.28, p=.27	F(1, 32)=16.64, p<.01. Lower in males than in females
MBSRQ – Self- Classified Weight (Males: α=0.74, Females: α=0.78)	2.8 (0.6)	2.8 (0.5)	2.8 (0.6)	2.9 (0.6)	3.3 (0.5)	3.1 (0.5)	3.3 (0.5)	3.3 (0.5)	F(1, 32)=4.38, p=.04. Decreases with exercise, no change with no exercise	F(1, 32)=5.86, p=.02. Lower in males than in females

Note: α – Cronbach’s alpha for reliability.

Body weight and shape did not change over time either following exercise or no exercise (largest F(1, 32) = 1.85, p = .18). Males were heavier (F(1, 32) = 5.42, p = .03), had a greater waist circumference (F(1, 32) = 10.81, p < .01) and a smaller hip circumference (F(1, 32) = 14.22, p < .01) than females, as would be expected, but no other significant differences were found (largest F(1, 32) = 3.09, p = .09).

Various aspects of body image however, did change (smallest F(1, 32) = 4.38, p = .04). Appearance evaluation, fitness evaluation, fitness orientation, health evaluation, illness orientation and body areas satisfaction increased and self-classified weight decreased over exercise (smallest t(33) = 2.05, p = .05), and while fitness evaluation, fitness orientation, health evaluation, illness orientation and self-classified weight remained unchanged during no exercise (largest t(33) = 1.96, p = .06), appearance evaluation and body areas satisfaction decreased (smallest t(33) = 2.12, p = .04). Only appearance orientation, health orientation and overweight preoccupation were unaffected by exercise (largest F(1, 32) = 2.07, p = .16). Females also reported higher scores on appearance orientation, fitness evaluation, health evaluation, overweight preoccupation and self-classified weight than males (smallest F(1, 32) = 5.86, p = .02), but no other significant differences were found (largest F(1, 32) = 2.14, p = .15).

Discussion

These findings suggest that six sessions of 40 mins exercise can improve body image, while no changes were found in body weight or shape. Thus, improvements in body image can be achieved through exercise while body weight and shape remain unchanged. Effects of exercise on body image have been found previously (e.g. Campbell and Hausenblas, 2009; Duijts et al., 2011; Hall et al., 2011; Hardoy et al., 2011), but this is the first demonstration of these effects in the absence of effects in body size and shape in an exercise setting as far as I am aware. These findings have implications first, for exercise promotion, and second, for enhancing our understanding of the means by which exercise can impact on body image.

Regarding exercise promotion, the findings of this study may suggest an important strategy for encouraging increased exercise participation. Reports suggest that many individuals fail to adhere to an exercise programme for long enough to gain health benefits partly as a result of a lack of observable changes in exercise goals – body weight and shape (Annesi, 2007; Annesi and Unruh, 2007; Martin and Lichtenberger, 2002). The results of this study suggest that a focus on body image or the use of body image as an exercise goal, may be more rewarding for those embarking on an exercise programme and may be more likely to result in enhanced adherence and sustained commitment. These effects were also found using an exercise programme which could provide health benefits as recommended by the UK government (National Health Service, 2010), and using a sample that was typical of the general UK population in terms of body weight, shape and body image. These results are consequently likely to be applicable to the general UK population.

The possible benefits of highlighting body image as a means to increase exercise adherence, however clearly need to be tested before this can be advocated. The effects of exercise on body image may differ dependent on a range of personal characteristics including body weight, initial body image, exercise ability or fitness, prior history with exercise, perception of the ideal self, media exposure and internalization, motivations for exercise, external pressures to exercise, and barriers towards exercise, such as social physique anxiety (Campbell and Hausenblas, 2009; Chittester and Hausenblas, 2009; Hall et al., 2011; Pritchard and Tiggemann, 2009; Thogersen-Ntoumani and Ntoumanis, 2006, 2007; Vocks et al., 2009). Many of these characteristics predominantly affect body image (Chitteser and Hausenblas, 2009; Hall et al., 2011; Pritchard and Tiggemann, 2009), but previous research shows strong effects of exercise on body image as a result of exercise specific motivations and barriers (Hall et al., 2011; Thogersen-Ntoumani and Ntoumanis, 2006, 2007). Theories on exercise participation (e.g. Self-Determination Theory (Deci and Ryan, 1985, 2000)) suggest a variety of different motivations for exercising, and studies specifically investigating exercise motivations have suggested exercise to result not just in changes in body image, but also changes in body image ideals (Thogersen-Ntoumani and Ntoumanis, 2006, 2007). Other studies also demonstrate decreases in body image satisfaction as a result of negative social comparison in the exercise setting (Hall et al., 2011), or as a result of a focus on body and exercise-related parameters (Zabinski et al., 2001). These studies would suggest a negative influence of a focus on body image for both exercise participation and maintenance (Hall et al., 2011; Thogersen-Ntoumani and Ntoumanis, 2007), and in some cases for psychological health and psychopathology (Thogersen-Ntoumani and Ntoumanis, 2007). These studies suggest that the effects of exercise on body image are far from straightforward, and are unlikely to be the same in all individuals (Campbell and Hausenblas, 2009; Hall et al., 2011). Further research on the underlying causes of differing effects (such as exercise motivations, media internalization and social physique anxiety), and the impact of these differing effects on exercise participation and adherence would clearly be of value.

Regarding the means by which exercise can impact on body image, the findings of this study also suggest that body image can change independently of changes in body weight and shape. Independence between body image and actual body size and shape has previously been suggested (Campbell and Hausenblas, 2009; Chittester and Hausenblas, 2009). Current theories suggest that body image is composed of a number of concepts including body weight, shape and fitness, but is far from limited to these (Cash, 2002; Hausenblas and Fallon, 2006; Sonstroem and Morgan, 1989; Sonstroem et al., 1994; Vocks et al., 2009). While it may be logical to suggest that exercise can have effects on body image via changes in body shape, size and fitness (Martin and Lichtenberger, 2002), various researchers also suggest that exercise affects body image not via objective indices of shape and fitness, but via changes in subjective perceptions (Campbell and Hausenblas, 2009; Martin and Lichtenberger, 2002; Martin Ginis et al., 2005). These changes in perceptions can occur in the absence of objective changes (Martin and Lichtenberger, 2002), and evidence for this is provided in this study. In the individual scales of the MBSRQ, participants reported significant improvements in self-classified weight, fitness evaluation and health evaluation following exercise compared to no exercise. These scales measure perceptions of the body as lean, fit and healthy (respectively), and even in the absence of actual physical changes, changes in perceptions are clear. These findings suggest that changes in body image in the early stages of an exercise programme are likely to be mediated through changes in perceptions of the body as opposed to physical changes. Interestingly, post-hoc analyses of these data also suggest significant correlations between improvements in scales of self-classified weight and those scales more attuned to body satisfaction – appearance evaluation and body areas satisfaction (smallest r = −0.454, p < .01), but a larger sample size is required for formal testing.

Research however also suggests that exercise may affect body image via self-esteem and/or self-efficacy, both in relation to and not in relation to the physical self (Cash, 2002; Fox, 2000; Sonstroem and Morgan, 1989; Sonstroem et al., 1994). Exercise is well known to result in improvements in self-esteem and self-efficacy (Andersen et al., 2010; Fox, 2000; Martin and Lichtenberger, 2002), but because these constructs were not measured here possible effects cannot be suggested. Further work investigating the relative roles of body perceptions, self-esteem and self-efficacy would clearly be of interest.

Changes were not found in all body image scales. The absence of changes in orientation scales (appearance and health) may be unsurprising given that these scales may be considered to represent more stable, longer-term attitudes than those that are likely to change over six exercise sessions (Cash, 2000), but the absence of effects in overweight preoccupation is surprising. Overweight preoccupation is theoretically closely aligned with body dissatisfaction, and the pattern of effects is as would be expected, but changes are small. Overweight preoccupation possibly also represents a more stable long-term attitude than can be manipulated by six sessions of exercise.

There were also no differences found in this study in the effects of the exercise programme between males and females. These findings suggest that body image is similarly affected by exercise in males and females and that suggestions to aid exercise adherence may be equally applicable to males and females, and that the general mechanisms through which exercise affects body image are also likely to be similar. Differences in the reasons for effects however, or the relative importance of one mechanism or another, may differ between males and females (e.g. Martin Ginis et al., 2005). Previous work suggests that body image for males may be more determined by perceptions of strength, ability and competence and that body image for females tends to be more determined by perceptions of appearance and weight (Chittester and Hausenblas, 2009; Corson and Andersen, 2002; Martin Ginis et al., 2005; Thompson et al., 1999), so relationships and the relative importance of different mechanisms may easily differ.

Differences between males and females in body weight, shape and various aspects of body image (independent of exercise/no exercise) were found as would be expected (Corson and Andersen, 2002; Feingold and Mazzella, 1998; Thompson et al., 1999), with one exception. Males reported significantly greater satisfaction with perceptions of one’s self as physically healthy (health evaluation scale) than females. This finding may suggest a bias towards the inclusion of healthy male participants in this study, through the use of volunteers for a study on exercise, and theories of body image may be influenced by this. This study also notably, was conducted on individuals who were willing to participate in an exercise programme. Different issues and effects may prevail in individuals who are unmotivated or unwilling to exercise.

The study is limited in its use of a small sample. Effects of various moderators of body image (e.g. age, body weight, initial body image) thus were not investigated, and reliability between body image questions (Cronbach’s alpha) was not as high as may be found in a larger sample. The body image questionnaire however has been well validated in larger populations (Cash, 2000), and the Cronbach’s alphas here should not warrant concern. Low Cronbach’s alphas were found only for the Body Areas Satisfaction scale, but varying answers to the questions on this scale are understandable given the nature of the scale (questions of satisfaction about differing and independent body parts). The high contact with the researcher may have affected responses to the body image questionnaire as a result of social desirability, but this social desirability would result in a masking of extreme responses, suggesting greater genuine responses than those reported, and effects such as these are unlikely to differ over time, and thus are unlikely to impact on the conclusions drawn from the whole study.

In conclusion, this study demonstrates changes in body image following 6 x 40 mins exercise compared to no exercise, while body weight and shape do not change. These findings have implications for exercise promotion where a possible role for body image for increasing exercise adherence is suggested. These findings also have implications for and progress theories of body image, where changes in body image as a result of exercise, particularly in the early stages of an exercise programme, appear likely to be mediated by body perceptions as opposed to actual body indices.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by the School of Psychology, Queen’s University, Belfast. Grateful thanks are also extended to Dunla Cassidy and Rachel Buchanan for help with data collection.

Competing Interests

None declared.

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