Resilience as a mediator in emotional social support’s relationship with occupational psychology health in firefighters

Abstract

This study’s objective is to examine the relationship between emotional demands and emotional social support at work, and the impact of resilience on health. A cross-sectional study of 156 firefighters was conducted. Descriptive analyses of the study’s variables were performed, along with structural equation analysis and hierarchical regression analysis. The results suggest statistically significant relationships among the study’s variables. Social support from one’s boss and intense emotional demands were found to have an interaction effect on firefighters’ resilience. The findings confirm the mediating role of resilience and the relationship with emotional social support from the boss on firefighters’ occupational health.

Keywords

burnout emotional social support engagement firefighters resilience

Introduction

Firefighters’ duties include preventing and extinguishing fires, and rescue, and they are often faced with situations of tremendous impact. These professionals are exposed to emotional demands on the job that, taken altogether, would be hard to find in any other group. First, during uninterrupted 24-hour shifts, they must coexist and interact socially with a group of coworkers at a station where work as well as facilities are shared. Second, they cope with emergency situations in which other people’s lives, or their own lives, are in serious or very serious danger, and must work efficiently as a team. To avoid declining health and workplace stress, they must learn to manage a range of feelings.

Researchers’ models of stress have evolved from only taking into consideration certain demands and resources. One such model is Demerouti et al.’s (2001) Job Demands-Resources (JD-R from here forward) model, which they recently revised to include personal resources in explaining how people manage stressful situations at work (Xanthopoulou et al., 2007). The model posits two processes, characterized by health impairment and motivation, generated by high job demands and high job resources, respectively (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2004). The negative and positive outcomes in the JD-R model are burnout and engagement. They are negatively correlated. Burnout has been widely studied in service sector employees, extending into other professions in recent years, and is considered a behavioral syndrome characterized by emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and lower professional efficacy (Maslach et al., 2001). Research results to date have been consistent across countries and professions in terms of emotional exhaustion and cynicism, but the third dimension has shown discrepancies. Therefore, professional efficacy cannot be considered a central dimension of this concept, but rather an independent factor that develops in parallel (Kristensen et al., 2005). As for engagement, this is defined as a positive work-related mental state characterized by Vigor, Dedication, and Absorption (Schaufeli et al., 2002). Like in the case of burnout, there is some debate about whether or not Absorption is a central component of this construct, but the first two are considered as such (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2003).

Russell (1980) Circumplex Model has been utilized to explain the relationship between those two constructs. The model proposes two continuous axes, pleasure and arousal, representing the spectrum of human emotions. Similarly, González-Romá et al. (2006) identified two processes: energy and identification. The same processes have been reported in health emergency personnel and rescue personnel (Ângelo and Chambel, 2013; Bernabé et al., 2011). The first one, marked by arousal, ranges from emotional exhaustion on one extreme to vigor on the other. The second, marked by pleasure and identity, ranges from cynicism on one extreme to dedication on the other. The authors proposed that burnout is characterized by low levels of energy and identification with work and that for engagement the opposite is true (high levels of energy and identification with work) (González-Romá et al., 2006).

In keeping with the JD-R model, where a person stands in terms of these parallel processes, can be explained as the result of their job demands, job resources, and personal resources. In other words, the physical, psychological, social, and organizational aspects of firefighters’ surroundings influence their behavior. The present research will also address Emotional Demands, defined for our purposes as the frequency of exposure to emotionally demanding situations (Bakker et al., 2005), in other words, those situations that require emotional effort (De Jonge and Dormann, 2003). In emergency services, researchers have studied a range of stressors that involved emotional effort, including dealing with victims, being exposed to unreasonable expectations, and coping with critical incidents (Tuckey and Hayward, 2011). The trauma literature has placed particular emphasis on what are known as critical incidents. These are the sort of low-frequency, but highly physically and emotionally intense tasks that firefighters face. Firefighters’ frequent exposure to this type of incident is directly related to burnout and post-traumatic stress symptomatology (Ângelo and Chambel, 2013; Chang et al., 2008; Lourel et al., 2008; Reinhard and Maercker, 2004).

Some aspects bring about a shift toward the positive ends of the energy and identification continuums. Job resources, for instance, can reduce demands and encourage personal growth (Demerouti et al., 2001). One job resource is social support. Researchers believe this factor modulates stress by increasing people’s ability to deal with it (Johnson, 1986; Karasek and Theorell, 1990); it plays a particularly important role in regulating emotional demands and increasing engagement (Llorens et al., 2005). Social support implies that two or more people interact, and it necessarily involves two perspectives: receiving and providing (Thoits, 1982). For the purposes of this research, social support may be defined from the receiver’s point of view as interacting with others in such a way as to satisfy one’s basic social needs for affiliation, affect, belonging, identity, security, and approval (Thoits, 1982). This takes place through an interactive process wherein the individual both receives and provides emotional, instrumental, and financial help from his or her social network (Bowling, 1991). There are different types of social support, but here we will focus on emotional social support. Emotional support behaviors offer care and empathy, giving the individual information related to self-esteem and social companionship (Cohen and Ashby, 1985). Various studies have shown that social support is an important factor in fire departments and is positively related to coping with stress (Smith et al., 2011). In the case of social support among firefighters, their largely hierarchical organizational structure leads to boss–subordinate interactions based more on supervision and correction than on cooperation and psychological support; passive emotional coping is predominant. This makes it hard to recognize the work being done, and its possible health repercussions (Ângelo and Chambel, 2013; Violanti, 1993).

In terms of personal resources, it has been observed that firefighters’ psychological well-being is due to a combination of environmental and personal factors (Ângelo and Chambel, 2013). Resilience is a personal characteristic that can help one acquire more resources or modify environmental features (Hobfoll, 1989). Traditionally, this variable has been studied as a protective variable in psychological trauma (Bonanno, 2004). A salutogenic model would define it as a person’s natural ability to cope with, overcome, and adapt to traumatic experience, leading him or her even to grow as an individual (Bonanno, 2004). Resilience, then, involves two capacities: to overcome and to rebuild oneself. The first enables us to cope with challenges in a socially acceptable way. The second enables us to emerge on the other side of adversity, adapt, and move forward. It is a dynamic, interactive process (individual-environment) that may vary over time according to one’s development and life circumstances (Rutter, 1993). Research within the organizational sphere has found that resilience mediates the relationship between psychological support and performance (Luthans et al., 2008). Along those lines, some authors have asserted that acting like a leader is enough to affect engagement, so training people in transformational leadership boosts “positive affect,” including resilience and other aspects (Tims et al., 2011). The mediating effect of resilience in turn increases engagement (Llorens et al., 2009; Salanova et al., 2013). In fact, a study by Llorens et al. (2009) confirmed that positive affect mediated the relationship between leadership and engagement. With resilience, one’s job resources—like emotional support at work—may favor engagement and diminish burnout to an even greater extent.

In light of the above, this study’s objective is to analyze the relationship between the main dimensions of burnout and engagement, emotional social support, resilience and emotional demands in a sample of firefighters.

The study’s hypotheses are as follows:

Hypothesis 1: Emotional social support at work will be positively related to engagement and negatively related to burnout in firefighters.

Hypothesis 2: Resilience will mediate the relationship between emotional social support at work and variables involved in the energy and identification processes.

Hypothesis 3: Emotional demands will have a moderating effect on the relationship between emotional social support and resilience in firefighters.

Method

Participants

The sample was comprised of 156 firefighters from a Spanish region. Their average age was 44.5 years (standard deviation (SD) = 7.7), and they had an average of 17.6 years of experience on the job (SD = 9.08). A total of 4 noncommissioned officers, 14 sergeants, 23 corporals, and 115 firefighters participated in the study. Of these, 94 percent of participants were public servants.

Variables and Instruments

Emotional demands

For the purposes of this study, these were the low- or high-frequency tasks of high physical and emotional intensity that firefighters face. A Critical Incidents Scale was used to determine the frequency of such events (Martín-Aragón et al., 2006); for the purposes of this study, it was adapted for firefighters (Botia and Bernabé, 2014). The questionnaire taps two dimensions: chronicity and intensity. A 6-point Likert-type response format was used (0 = Never; 5 = Very often).

Emotional social support

This variable refers to supportive behaviors in the workplace, both in coworker and supervisor relationships. It was evaluated using the Spanish version of House and Wells’s (1978) emotional social support scales for coworkers and supervisors. That instrument collects data on emotional support at work. A 4-point Likert-type response format was used (0 = Not at all; 3 = A lot).

Resilience

This is defined as the human ability to face up to adversities in life, overcome them, and even be transformed by them. It was evaluated using the Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale (Connor and Davidson, 2003), validated for use in Spanish populations (Serrano-Parra et al., 2012). A 5-point Likert-type response format was used (1 = Not true at all; 5 = True nearly all of the time).

Burnout

Two main dimensions of burnout were assessed: emotional exhaustion and cynicism, from the Maslach Burnout Inventory-General Scale (MBI-GS) (Schaufeli et al., 1996). This instrument was validated for use in Spanish populations by Salanova et al. (2000). Emotional exhaustion is defined as a lack of energy, and cynicism as attempting to distance oneself from his or her work. A 7-point Likert-type response scale was used (0 = Never; 6 = Always).

Engagement

This was evaluated along the two main dimensions of engagement, Vigor and Dedication, according to the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (Schaufeli and Bakker, 2003). Vigor is having a high level of energy at work, whereas Dedication is understood as finding meaning and pride in the work one does. A 7-point Likert-type response scale was used (0 = Never; 6 = Always). All measures had an α value over .70 (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994).

Procedure

This study was approved by Fire Department Management. With their assistance, different areas of operations were randomly selected for questionnaires to be administered. The instrument was self-administered. Before completing it, participants were informed that participating in the study was voluntary, and in keeping with the recommendations of the International Test Commission, we sought their informed consent to participate.

Statistical analyses

Analyses of the scales’ internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha) were carried out to establish their validity. Values above α = .70 will indicate a good level of internal consistency (Nunnally and Bernstein, 1994). Descriptive analysis was performed previously.

In our mediation analysis, Preacher and Hayes’s (2004) bootstrapping procedure was used to analyze the indirect effect on the dependent variable. According to those authors, indirect effects are significant when p < .05 with a 95 percent confidence interval (CI). To determine the strength of mediation, the SPSS macro developed by Preacher et al. (2007) was used. This procedure performs multiple regression analyses in order to test for indirect and direct effects on the dependent variable. In this study, analyses were applied corresponding to Model 4 (Preacher et al., 2007). Similarly, Model 1 was utilized to analyze conditional effects when resilience is examined as a dependent variable.

Structural Equation Modeling was done to analyze whether the proposed theoretical model is adequate. The model will be said to have goodness of fit if χ² is significant, the χ²/degrees of freedom (df) ratio is between 2 and 3, goodness-of-fit index (GFI), comparative fit index (CFI), and normed fit index (NFI) indices are over .90, and root-mean-square error of approximation (RMSEA) is between .05 and .08 (Lau et al., 2009). To test the mediating effect, Sobel’s test was utilized. For α = .05, the corresponding critical value is z/2 = 1.96 for there to be mediating effect on the dependent variable.

The SPSS 21 statistical program was used to perform descriptive analyses, analyses of reliability, and hierarchical regression analysis. Structural equations were calculated using the application AMOS 21.

Results

The results of our analysis of resilience in the relationship between emotional social support and the main burnout and engagement variables appear in the Supplementary Table. In the case of emotional social support from supervisors (M = 3.14; SD = .47) as well as coworkers (M = 3.51; SD = .65), statistically significant correlations were observed (r: (−.32, −.45); p < .001) with resilience (M = 2.98; SD = 1.24), emotional exhaustion (M = .92; SD = .93), cynicism (M = .73; SD = .99), vigor (M = 4.68; SD = .38), and dedication (M = 4.74; SD = .99).

Analysis of the mediating effects of resilience (Supplementary Table) revealed an indirect effect on the relationship between emotional social support from one’s supervisor (β: (−.104, −.166)) and coworkers (β: (−.201, −.297)), and emotional exhaustion, cynicism, vigor, and dedication. Likewise, results from Sobel’s test suggested statistically significant mediation in all the relationships analyzed (z: (−3.15, −3.45); p < .05; p < .001). Regarding explained variance in different variables, emotional social support from one’s supervisor and resilience yielded values ranging from .47 to .53, while social emotional support from coworkers and resilience yielded a range of values between .46 and .54.

We conducted confirmatory analyses of resilience as a mediating variable in the relationship between emotional social support at work, and the energy and identification processes. Results supported the theoretical model in which resilience had a mediating effect at both ends of the processes (Table 1). The data suggested that introducing resilience into the model of emotional social support at work improved the model’s overall goodness of fit to the data in the case of energy (Δχ²/df = −.85) as well as identification (Δχ²/df = −.65).

Table 1.

Confirmatory analysis of resilience in the relationship between emotional social support and processes of energy and identification.

Models	χ²/df	CFI	NFI	TLI	RMSEA	Δχ²/df
Energy process
SS → EX-VI	2.93	.92	.89	.89	.11
SS → R → EX-VI	2.07	.93	.88	.88	.08	−.85
Identification process
SS → CY-DE	2.11	.96	.92	.92	.09
SS → R → CY-DE	1.46	.97	.91	.91	.05	−.65

df: degrees of freedom; CFI: comparative fit index; NFI: normed fit index; TLI: Tucker–Lewis index; RMSEA: root-mean-square error of approximation; SS = social support, EX = exhaustion; VI = vigor; R = resilience; DE = dedication, CY = cynicism.

Next, we determined under what conditions emotional social support had an impact on resilience, with hierarchical regression analysis revealing two main effects and an interaction effect (R² = .30; F = 16.775; p < .001). First, intense emotional demands (t = 2.29, p < .05; β = .44; CI (.061, −.832)) and emotional social support from one’s supervisor (t = 3.38, p < .001; β = .32; CI (.133, −.506)) yielded main effects. Second, an interaction effect was observed on resilience (t = −2.26, p < .05; β = .13; CI (−.246, −.017)). It showed a rise in the model (ΔR² = .03; F = 5.14; p < .05), suggesting a conditional effect on resilience by including both variables in the model (Figure 1). When we analyzed less-intense emotional demands and social support from coworkers, the results of hierarchical regression did not yield significant interaction effects.

Figure 1.

Interaction effect of emotional social support and intense emotional demands on resilience.

Discussion

Regarding Hypothesis 1, the results showed that emotional social support was positively correlated with the vigor and dedication dimensions, and negatively correlated with the emotional exhaustion and cynicism dimensions. These findings are consistent with those of previous studies on burnout and engagement processes in emergency personnel (Ângelo and Chambel, 2013; Bernabé et al., 2011). The relationship observed in various studies between emotional social support, burnout, and engagement suggests that emotional social support attenuates job stress and boosts engagement (Cifré et al., 2003). Supervisor and coworker support was related to variables from energy and identification processes such that when coping with adverse situations, firefighters who perceived the coworkers and the supervisors as sources of support have higher levels of vigor and dedication.

As for Hypothesis 2, results confirmed the mediating role of resilience and an indirect effect of emotional social support at work. Thus, emotional social support from one’s supervisor and coworkers was indirectly related to employee health, favoring resilience. We also observed the mediating effect of personal resources posited by the JD-R model (Xanthopoulou et al., 2007), according to which resilience mediates the relationship between job resources and engagement, perhaps causing an increase in what Xanthopoulou et al. referred to as “positive affect,” or as part of a more general mechanism termed “psychological capital” (Luthans et al., 2008). In this case, we found that social support was related to firefighters’ resilience by means of energy and identification processes. The result was that firefighters felt motivated to go to work, and like part of the organization. By the same token, we observed that lack of social support influenced resilience, too, putting firefighters at greater risk (Lee et al., 2014; Strümpfer, 2003).

In relation to Hypothesis 3, the results confirmed our hypothesis about social support but only from one’s supervisor, and the impact of intense emotional demands on resilience in firefighters. We observed that actions denoting support, recognition, and social companionship from people in leadership positions were especially important to firefighters. We also observed that intense emotional demands have an impact on resilience. We also found that in firefighters, perceived social support from supervisors was important to subordinates at dramatic or dangerous times. However, no interaction effect of emotional social support at work occurred on lower intensity emotional demands that moderate the development of resilience. Therefore, consistent with Hobfoll’s (1989) findings, we found that possessing resources like social support helps build other resources, like resilience, especially at times when resources are threatened.

This study’s results highlight the crucial role of personal and job resources in firefighters’ occupational health. Several important conclusions can be made about how to promote occupational health in firefighters. First, fire departments should encourage satisfying and supportive relationships at work. For firefighters to deal with high-impact situations, it is especially important to establish emotional support networks. This lowers levels of emotional exhaustion and cynicism, and promotes feelings of vigor and dedication. Second, strong emotional social support at work promotes resilience, so firefighters cope adaptively with stress, resulting in fewer negative responses when critical incidents occur. Finally, promoting emotional social support from supervisors in situations with intense emotional demands, independent of hierarchy, helps firefighters develop the resilience to cope with the events of great impact that arise at work, and with those events’ associated stress. Actions like congratulating people on their performance, personal recognition, and being available to help all increase firefighters’ resilience in extreme situations. Nevertheless, we can also deduce from these results that emotional support from coworkers and supervisors in lower impact situations, even without affecting resilience, boosts identification and energy, and decreases stress.

In conclusion, certain theoretical and practical implications can be derived from the study presented here. Our results confirm that the JD-R model is suitable for studying burnout and engagement, because job and personal resources were found to influence the relationship between job demands and stress. In light of these findings in firefighters, we propose that resources like resilience or emotional support at work be incorporated into burnout prevention programs. In keeping with what Xanthopoulou et al. (2009) proposed, such programs have the potential to help workers (in this case fire departments) optimize personal and job resources through appropriate corporate planning (transformational leadership, teamwork, resilience, etc.), and suitable personal preparation (social skills, problem-solving, motivation, etc.). Thus, even though we cannot change the nature of critical incidents, or make them less demanding, we can reduce their emotional impact by promoting personal and job resources, and by taking the best possible advantage of those resources by positively cycling and regenerating them.

Finally, the cross-sectional design should be mentioned as a limitation of the study, which allows partial conclusions about the variables. For the future, it is necessary to design a longitudinal study that allows conclusions regarding causality of personal and organizational resources on firefighter health. In addition, a future line to study will be about the role of leadership in hierarchical structures on resilience and health of these professionals.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge the support of the fire service who participated in the study.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

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