The practicability of proverbs in teaching Arabic language and culture

1 Paremiology

Modern scholarship on paremiology is, on the whole, theoretical in nature and permeates almost all disciplines. ² An overview of the early scholarship on proverbs reveals two major orientations. First, these studies were predominantly limited to Anglo-American milieus. Second, these pursuits concern primarily the questions of the definition, origin, and the historical evolution of proverbs. New areas of interest on the subject began to appear in later studies. Such is the case with proverbs’ folkloristic facets, sociocultural applications, (Dundes, 1981, pp. 43–64; Mieder, 2012, pp. 41–42; 2004, pp. 146–48) and semantic structures (Barley, 1972; Dundes, 1975; Krikmann, 2009, pp. 51–70, 79–94). The use of proverbs in politics, business, and medicine figures in some recent studies (Mieder, 2012, pp. 152–172). The role that proverbs play in non-western societies is another important aspect of scholarship on the subject, such as in African (Adeyemi & Salawudeen, 2014, pp. 186–192; Mphande, 2006; Sheppherd, 1988) and Asian cultures (Nayak & Rao, 2013).

However, there is a shortage of studies on the application of proverbs in language instruction (Richmond, 1987, p. 214). An examination of the few studies that fall under this category yields three major characteristics. First, the employment of proverbs in language teaching is essentially theoretical in nature and still represents a marginal feature of the pedagogical process. Second, these investigations are associated primarily with the less commonly taught and non-western languages. Such is the case with the African (Adeniran, 2012, pp. 121–135; Richmond, 1987, pp. 213–216), Caribbean (Bernard & Adonis, 2012), Turkish (Güven & Halat, 2015, pp. 1240–1246), and Iranian (Dabaghi, Pishbin, & Niknasab, 2010) cultures. Finally, there is growing interest in the application of proverbs in the instruction of English as a second language, but these endeavors are found mostly in non-English speaking countries (Ajoke, Hasan, & Suleiman, 2015; Zaid, 2016).

2 Arabic proverbs

Modern scholarship on Arabic proverbs principally takes the form of compendia accompanied sometimes with translations or short commentaries. These compilations can be divided in terms of arrangement into three major categories: alphabetical, thematic, and regional. Examples for the alphabetical arrangement of proverbs are the works of: Al-Yusūf, 2002; Amily, 2003; Elkhadem, 1991; Himsi, 1986; Sabbagh, 1983; Shalan, 2003. The application of a thematic arrangement of proverbs can be seen in the works of Al-Hashshash, 1988; Dana, 2006; Honeck, 1997; Muhammad, 2005. The use of a regional approach in the examination of Arabic proverbs, which looms large in modern scholarship, is found in the studies of Abaẓa, 1989; Abu Khushaym, 2014; Al-Akwa, 1968; Al-Juhayman, 1964; Al-Rawi, 2000; Al-Tikriti, 1966–69; Hankí, 1998; Isa, 1988; Isleem, 2009, 2017; Messaoudi, 1999; Mubayyad, 1986; Muwaqi, 2008; Nadir, 2002; Shishtawi, 1991. The combination of two categories in the examination of Arabic proverbs is also apparent in some studies. Such is the case with Nasser Isleem’s Popular proverbs: An entrance to Palestinian culture (2009), which follows both regional and alphabetical approaches. The way proverbs are arranged and presented in this work also turns their application in teaching Arabic culture into a practical and rewarding experience. ³

Scholarly efforts to examine Arabic proverbs from the sociolinguistic, folkloric, or pedagogical perspectives is relatively small. Examples of inquiries that follow sociolinguistic or folkloric approaches are found in the studies of Barakat, Allam, and Dundes. Barakat’s work investigates the social context of proverbs by applying oral literary criticism and ethnographical methods (Barakat, 1980). Allam’s article analyses the sociolinguistic use of colors in Egyptian proverbs (Allam, 2000). Dundes’ (2003) study focuses on the folkloric examination of the Qur’ānic parables and their role in the oral tradition. However, scholarship on Arabic proverbs lacks a serious discussion of the pedagogical applications of proverbs in teaching Arabic as a Foreign Language (TAFL). ⁴ The works of McCarus, Muhawi, and Brosh are important contributions reflecting on the incorporation of Arabic proverbs in language teaching.

McCarus’ article, which is among the first studies to discuss the integration of proverbs in teaching Arabic, focuses on the morphology and syntax of proverbs originating in the Syrian and Lebanese dialects (McCarus, 1956). However, this study is limited to abstract discussion without providing concrete pedagogical examples of how proverbs can be applied in teaching. Muhawi applies Malinowski’s theory of phatic communion to examine the folkloristic and sociolinguistic functions of Arabic proverbs in different social situations (Muhawi, 1999). Yet this inquiry is on the whole theoretical in nature and lacks concrete examples showing the practicability of proverbs in teaching. Using an action inquiry methodology, Brosh discusses the extent to which Arabic proverbs can affect learners’ perception of Arab culture and enhance their intercultural awareness (Brosh, 2013, pp. 19–29). Although Brosh’s essay has more bearing on the current article in terms of pedagogical focus and proverb-centered class activities, it has some limitations. First, the process of selecting proverbs suitable for learners’ language proficiency level is unclear. Second, the empirical examples used in this study are limited to four class presentations without clearly showing how these class activities affected other learners. Finally, assessing the extent to which this experiment affected participants’ intercultural competence is too general and not well defined.

3 Intercultural competence

Scholarship on intercultural competence still lacks consensus on the conceptual definition of this term, its models, and the disciplines it comprises (Arasaratnam, 2016, pp. 2–4; Deardorff, 2006, p. 242; Engelking, 2018, p. 48; Wilberschied, 2015, p. 3). One of the recognized definitions of intercultural competence is provided by Spitzberg & Changnon (2009). They describe it as ‘the appropriate and effective management of interaction between people who, to some degree or another, represent different or divergent affective, cognitive, and behavioral orientations to the world’ (p. 7). To fully understand the evolution of scholarship on intercultural competence and its relevance to language learning, we should explore the dynamics that affected its development as well as the interdisciplinary features.

We can trace early academic studies of intercultural competence to renowned cultural anthropologists, such as Boas (1940), Hall (1959, 1966), and Oliver (1962). Their scholarly efforts emerged primarily as a reaction to the political and economic interactions of Western countries (particularly the United States) with other nations to facilitate a better understanding of other cultures (Spitzberg & Changnon, 2009, pp. 8–9). Studies closely related to intercultural competence, which appears in tandem with intercultural communication, began in the 1970s, primarily as result of increased travelling abroad, particularly by Americans (Arasaratnam, 2016, p. 16). The arrival of migrants in Western countries also provided a significant impetus to the study of intercultural competence. These encounters instigated studies focusing on emigrants’ challenges and adaptability in the new cultural environments (Dodd, 1977; Sarbaugh, 1988 ⁵ ). Since the 1990s, scholars have been preoccupied with conceptually demarcating intercultural competence in terms of definition, typology of models, and its relation to other concepts, such as identity and global affiliation. (Deardorff, 2006).

As for the categorization of intercultural competence into models and theories, Deardorff (2009) points to three major themes: empathy, perspective taking, and adaptability (p. 265). Different typological approaches, however, led to different conceptual constructs. Applying sequential and topical approaches, Spitzberg & Changnon (2009) arranges these models into five general premises: compositional, co-orientational, developmental, adaptational, and causal process (pp. 9–34). However, the use of a theoretical approach informed by the process of cross-cultural learning led to the emergence of the following models: Bennett’s ‘cultural sensitivity’ (1993), Gudykunst’ ‘anxiety and uncertainty measurement’ (1993), Byram’s ‘multidimensional model’ (1997), and Deardorff’s ‘process model’ (2006) (Wilberschied, 2015, pp. 2–3). Yet, these models are limited in terms of scope simply because they are based squarely on the individual experiences and reflect primarily Western perspectives (Deardorff, 2009, p. 265; Kim, 2009, pp. 53–56). Efforts to examine intercultural competence from non-Western perspectives, with an emphasis on interpersonal and cross-cultural relations worldwide, began to appear in recent studies. Such is the case with viewing intercultural competence from Arab (Zaharna, 2009, p. 192), African (Nwosu, 2009, p. 167) or Indian (Manian & Naidu, 2009, pp. 244–245) perspectives.

Assessing the role of language learning in promoting intercultural education, which is of direct relevancy to this article, is another significant aspect of scholarship on intercultural competence (Brosh, 2013; Engelking, 2018, pp. 48–50; Garret-Rucks, 2014, pp. 181–191; Lustig & Koester, 2012, pp. 151–178; Moeller & Nugent, 2014; Neuner, 2003; Parmenter, 2003; Slimbach, 2005). Discussions about how languages can be taught from an intercultural perspective yielded a number of models, such as the concept of the binary knowledge (savior) of the self and the other (Byram, 1997; Byram & Zarate, 1994 ⁶ ). A further explanation of this concept was developed by Liddicoat & Scarino (2013), who view intercultural education in language learning ‘through interpreting and expressing meaning across cultural boundaries in dialogue with self and others, drawing on awareness and knowledge gained through previous experience . . .’ (p. 50). The questions of applicability and assessment, as well as resources of intercultural competence, constitute further thematic interests among researchers in this area (Berg & Paige, 2009, pp. 419–437; Fantini, 2009, pp. 456–491; Cushner & Mahon, 2009, pp. 304–320).

1 ARB 102

For the empirical investigation in the ARB 102 class, we used the following proverbs:

After the completion of the first, literal level of this activity, the instructor provided students with the following questions to evaluate their performance at the interpretative level and assess intercultural learning:

Answering the first question about the proverbs’ themes, students referred to the following: ‘family’ (the vast majority of respondents), ‘time,’ ‘weather,’ ‘ways of life,’ ‘relationships,’ ‘neighbor,’ ‘family ties,’ and ‘friendship.’ As for the second question, almost all participants were able to point accurately to all three examples of antonyms: qarīb and ba’īd (‘close’ and ‘far’), ḥarr and bard (‘hotness’ and ‘coldness’), ṣaif and shitā (‘summer’ and ‘winter’). Explaining what the word wa-lā in proverb 3 and 5 means, the majority of students rendered the colloquial phrase wa-lā as a form of negation (nor, but not). Yet, only two were able to give the precise meaning, ‘rather than,’ which in this context implies preference. The first three questions, which deal with general comprehension, morphological recognition, and grammatical structure, aimed primarily to assess participants’ language reading skills at the literal level. These answers indicate that the majority of respondents were able to comprehend the main ideas and find relevant details in these proverbs.

Second, ARB 102 learners were able to recognize key grammatical structures, and even unfamiliar colloquial structures did not hinder them from grasping the main idea. This is clearly evident in the way learners handled the phrase ‘wa-lā.’ More importantly, students’ responses demonstrated that the use of proverbs in language teaching can facilitate a flowing transition from modern standard Arabic (fuṣḥā) to colloquial forms (‘āmmiyya) of the language, particularly when it comes to teaching culture. The incorporation of proverbs in teaching Arabic, therefore, is even more instrumental in Arab programs where the emphasis is placed on modern standard Arabic.

Answering the fourth question about social interactions in Arab society, students highlighted the centrality of the family and the individual’s strong commitment to this institution. This is evident in the following responses: ‘commitment to the family is an essential aspect of Arab customs,’ ‘to be more close and near your family,’ ‘family should be the most important for you,’ ‘we should be kind to the people that we know and we should respect our extended family,’ ‘interpersonal relationship with those close to you is important,’ and ‘they teach us to protect and honor our family and that we should treat those close to us [well].’ Interestingly, some students equated friends and neighbors in terms of sociable interactions with family members. This tendency can be seen in the following responses: ‘friends and family are close and mean a lot,’ and ‘family and friends are very close,’ ‘neighbors are very close,’ and ‘you protect physically people close to you like the ones you live with and your neighbors.’ However, a few respondents faced some difficulties in understanding the cultural values embodied in these proverbs. This orientation is exemplified in a student’s response to the fourth question saying: ‘I have no clue.’ This reaction indicates that the respondent was most probably a non-Arab who could not fully comprehend these cultural values, as they lie outside her or his cultural comfort zone.

Conspicuous in students’ responses to the fourth question is the recurrence of the word ‘close.’ This finding seems to indicate that learners’ evaluation of interactions within the Arab society is greatly influenced by their own background culture, which emphasizes individualism over collectivism. The process in which students negotiated these cultural differences also demonstrates a gradual shift from ethnocentric to ethnorelative, if we were to use Bennett’s (1993) developmental models of intercultural sensitivity (pp. 21–71). Students’ perception of these cultural differences through the prism of individualism-collectivism also suggests that they were interacting, noticing, comparing, and reflecting (Garret-Rucks, 2016, pp. 21–23; Liddicoat & Scarino, 2013, pp. 56–61). In doing so, learners applied comparative thinking and were interculturally stimulated.

Addressing the fifth question (If you were to visit part of the Arab World in which month or season would you prefer to be there? Why?), students wrote ‘winter because I hate the heat,’ ‘I would want to go during Ramadan and experience it on a fuller scale,’ ‘in the winter because the weather is nice,’ ‘summer,’ ‘winter, I would visit in May, I think it would be nice weather and I would have the most free time,’ ‘summer, I love summer and I feel people are more available then,’ ‘I would go in summer to see the nature and for weddings,’ ‘I would visit during Ramadan because I think it would be very fun and would have good food,’ ‘the winter because there is little to no snow which would be a nice change from Ohio,’ and ‘winter because it is mild and easy choice.’

These responses demonstrate that learners’ assessment of the differences between their cultural background and the Arab culture (in terms of climate, seasons, and celebrations) was informed by comparative thinking and negotiation of the otherness. For example, students underscored summer as an ideal time to visit the Arab world due to the warmer weather, the availability of people, and celebratory atmosphere. Further examples of comparison are also apparent in learners’ answers when the cold weather where they live is contrasted with the hot summer in the Arab world, as they clearly prefer the latter. Again, an engagement with intercultural competence was established here, as students were assessing dissimilarities and negotiating otherness (McBride and Gu, 2015). This process of active learning also shows a transition from an ethnocentric to ethnorelative stage of intercultural thinking.

Students’ discussions of the sixth question (What do you learn from these proverbs about Arab culture?) resonate, to a great extent, with those rendered by the fourth question. Respondents wrote: ‘family is huge,’ ‘there is a high emphasis on social relationships,’ ‘we can learn ways of life,’ ‘family is very important and friends are like family,’ ‘we learn [that] family and neighbors are very valued,’ ‘I learned that family is the most important value in the Arabic culture and that [it] forms close knit communities,’ ‘closest person to you the important one to you,’ ‘loving your relatives,’ and ‘what the Arab culture most morally values.’ The analysis of these responses shows that, as in reactions to the fourth question, students underlined the centrality of the family in Arab society. These responses also demonstrate learners’ understanding that, unlike their background culture, social interactions among Arabs are informed by collectivism rather than individualism. This orientation is clearly represented in a participant’s response to the seventh question, regarding comparable English proverbs, stating: ‘I could not think of any, but I think that is because we place a greater emphasis on the individual than social relations.’ Again, the way learners negotiated these cultural differences is another indicator that intercultural consideration was involved in the learning process.

Responding to the seventh question, only a few students of ARB 102 were able to provide comparable English proverbs to the above-mentioned Arabic sayings. Among the equivalent English sayings found in these answers were: ‘Blood is thicker than water,’ and ‘A house divided cannot stand,’ as matching the Arabic proverbs ‘My brother and I are united against my paternal cousin, and my paternal cousin and I join hands against strangers’ and ‘The maternal uncle is a father.’ Another student rightly rendered the English saying ‘Treat your neighbor like your brother’ as comparable to the Arabic proverb ‘Rather a close neighbor than a distant brother.’ However, the majority of students had difficulties finding analogous proverbs in English and ended up providing irrelevant English sayings. They suggested, ‘Pick the lesser of the two evils,’ ‘The glass is either half empty or half full,’ ‘The early bird gets the worm,’ ‘Actions speak louder than words,’ ‘It is not over until it is over,’ and ‘It’s raining cats and dogs.’ The inability of some students to provide comparable sayings in English could be related to their unawareness of proverbs in their culture. This orientation is exemplified in the following response: ‘I could not think of any.’ However, the unfamiliarity with the cultural and social background against which Arabic proverbs emerged can serve as another explanation.

Following the completion of the second part of this activity, the instructor asked a representative from each group to share their findings in class. As a homework assignment, the instructor asked students to compose a brief skit that incorporated the proverbs into role-play situations to linguistically illustrate certain social situations or cultural values.

2 ARB 201

For the proverb-based activity conducted in ARB 201, the following sayings were used:

Working at the literal level, students were asked first to read these proverbs seeking to find the main ideas and some relevant details. The instructor then added the following four questions to prompt discussion in these groups to assess their performance at the interpretative level:

First, deriving the proverbs’ themes, students wrote: ‘time and personal feelings,’ ‘associate with good people,’ ‘optimism,’ ‘feeling pain is better than lasting pain,’ ‘you do not want what you cannot see,’ ‘the eyes are important,’ ‘perseverance, trust or faith,’ ‘self-disciple, and pain.’ Attempting to summarize these sayings, one student wrote, ‘All of these proverbs have to do with self-discipline.’ Participants’ responses to the second question regarding moral lessons and advice included ‘choose your friends wisely,’ ‘be good and do not express bad opinions,’ ‘think beyond the present,’ ‘the decisions we make impact our lives,’ and ‘patience, persistence, and faith.’ Further reflections on moral lessons included ‘choose your friends wisely, know that others have it worse and your heart is easily led astray by the eyes,’ ‘the moral lessons include not exposing yourself to harm including friends who may do more harm than good in the future.’

Students’ considerations of the third question regarding Arab culture referred to the notions of self-discipline, self-preservation, the role of religion, and superstitious inclinations. A student wrote: ‘The Arabic culture values self-care, self-discipline, and self-preservation.’ Another response read, ‘They [Arabs] believe that the world is full of good things, so find the good things and focus on that; religion is imbedded in daily language.’ Other participants limited their answers to short comments such as ‘very superstitious, but not very different,’ ‘[Arabic culture is] similar to all,’ ‘deep meanings, all senses are engaged,’ and ‘wisdom and experience.’ Comparative interpretations also occurred. For example, one student wrote, ‘Arab culture is very similar to other cultures around the world, however it is clear that Arabic culture has a strong religious side to it. Also Arabic culture can be very considerate and peaceful.’ Another respondent wrote, ‘Arab culture, based on these proverbs (proverbs 1 and 2), seems to believe that the world is full of bad and evil and one must protect themselves from it.’ A reference to the importance of weather in Arab culture also figured in some of the responses. One student wrote, ‘Weather plays an important role in their sayings.’

The analysis of students’ responses to the first three questions yields a number of interesting thoughts. First, these answers demonstrate that learners were able to perform well on the linguistic level, as they understood the general meanings and main ideas along with relevant details. Second, the themes of self-discipline and self-preservation figure prominently in these responses. However, the emphasis that students placed on these two qualities seems to reflect primarily expectations and concerns colored by their own cultural background. That is, participants perceive self-discipline and self-preservation as significant necessities in achieving a successful life and peace of mind. Yet, within the Arab cultural context these proverbs function primarily as moral lessons aiming towards healthier social situations and teaching how to avoid life complications.

Students’ responses to the third question about Arab culture indicate comprehension of the social context from which these proverbs emerged, as well as the cultural implications they communicate. The learners perceived the important role that religion and superstition play in Arabs’ daily life. As participants compared Arab culture to other cultures, they actually highlighted similarities rather than differences. This finding suggests that students viewed Arab culture positively for having practical and relatable characteristics. These considerations and constructive comparisons show that the proverb-based activity in ARB 201 enhanced learners’ awareness and understanding of Arab culture as they were interacting, noticing, comparing, and reflecting. Furthermore, learners’ responses to the first three questions signify that they were using skills of interpreting, relating, and discovery; attitudes; and critical cultural awareness (Byram, 1997, pp. 3–5; Byram &Wagner, 2018; Wagner et al., 2017, pp. 6–9). Students’ reactions here also demonstrate cultural sensitivity and recognition that take the form of a shift from ethnocentric to ethnorelative stage of thinking (Bennett, 1993, pp. 30–69). Hence, learners met the five core preconditions for learning a language through intercultural perspective: active construction, making connections, social interaction, reflection, and responsibility (Liddicoat & Scarino, 2013, pp. 56–62).

Asked about similar English proverbs, the majority of students were able to find English parallels. For example, the proverb ‘Out of sight, out of mind’ was rightly compared to Arabic saying ‘Far from the eye, far from the heart,’ and the saying ‘You are who your friends are’ to ‘Tell me who your friend is and I will tell you who you are.’ Some students provided different versions of the second proverb, such as ‘You are like who hang out with,’ or ‘you are who you are friends with.’ The English saying ‘Knock on wood’ was selected properly in a few responses as the equivalent of the previously mentioned proverb: ‘Five fingers in the eye of Satan.’ One student chose the saying ‘Changes his mind with the wind,’ whose origin is actually ‘She just changes her mind like the wind,’ as comparable to the abovementioned saying ‘He changes his mind every hour like February’s clouds.’ The saying ‘No pain no gain’ appears in a student’s response as an equivalent to the above-mentioned proverb: ‘Endurance for one hour can end further suffering.’ However, there were a few cases in which students provided certain English sayings whose relevance is unclear, such as ‘Happiness is a state of mind,’ ‘Iron sharpens iron,’ or ‘The glass is half full.’ In comparison with ARB 102 students, the learners of ARB 201 did much better in finding equivalent English sayings. This disparity seems to indicate that ARB 201 students enjoy a higher familiarity with their own cultural background and perhaps greater intellectual maturity than those of ARB 102. Perhaps, in addition, the proverbs selected for ARB 201 students impart more universal meaning than those selected for ARB 102.

After students completed the two-staged task, the instructor asked each group to share its findings with the class. These class presentations offered an additional angle for the instructor to assess the practicability of proverbs in teaching Arabic. As a homework assignment, students wrote a short composition to illustrate the moral lesson that these proverbs conveyed. Alternatively, they could write a short story centered on some of these proverbs.