A multigroup SEM analysis of mediating role of enjoyment,anxiety,and boredom in the relationships between L2 motivational self-system,L2 proficiency,and intercultural communication competence

Abstract

This study aims to test a mediation model to understand how the second language motivational self-system (L2MSS) affects second language (L2) proficiency and intercultural communication competence (ICC) through the mediating effects of foreign language enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom among English as a foreign language (EFL) learners in China. A total of 2,713 Chinese EFL learners, comprising 1,376 English majors and 1,337 non-English majors, voluntarily participated in the present study. Structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis was conducted to analyse the collected data. Additionally, a multigroup SEM approach was applied to compare potential differences between the two major types in the hypothesized relationships. The results revealed that the impacts of the ideal self and learning experience positively and directly predicted L2 proficiency and ICC, whereas the ought-to self had a direct and negative influence. Foreign language enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom mediated the relationships between L2MSS, L2 proficiency, and ICC. Also, L2 proficiency positively affected ICC. Moreover, the multigroup SEM analysis revealed that these two groups did not differ significantly in the hypothesized pathways, suggesting that these relationships were not moderated by students’ majors. These research findings may present significant implications for EFL learners and teachers.

Keywords

anxiety boredom Chinese EFL learner enjoyment intercultural communication competence L2 motivational self-system L2 proficiency

I Introduction

Foreign language learning is an arduous endeavor requiring ongoing dedication, resilience, and persistence (Lou & Noels, 2020). At the core of this complex linguistic journey lies the profound impact of motivation – an underlying force driving the initiation and continuation of language acquisition. Motivation acts as a compensatory mechanism, mitigating the inherent differences in language aptitude and the diverse learning environments. There is widespread agreement regarding the significant role that motivation plays in both the process of acquiring a nonprimary language and the resulting development of the learners’ second language (L2) competence (Moskovsky et al., 2016) and their intercultural communication competence (ICC) (Gelişli & Kazykhankyzy, 2019). Examining learners’ motivations not only allows us to identify the determinants fueling their endeavors to achieve L2 proficiency but also provides valuable perspectives on how L2 learners connect with their immediate social surroundings and the broader global context (S. Ryan, 2009).

Motivation can be broadly characterized as a combination of individual and collective reasons or incentives that independently and collectively steer or potentially influence an individual’s behavior (Nevid, 2013). Over the past decade, many researchers have adopted the second language motivational self-system (L2MSS) proposed by Dörnyei (2009) to perceive learners’ motivation for English learning (Csizér, 2019). In recent meta-analytical inquiries, it has been illustrated that this analytical framework enjoys extensive usage in motivation research, attributable to its versatility and adaptability across diverse contexts (Boo et al., 2015; Mahmoodi & Yousefi, 2022). While L2MSS has seen extensive use in L2 research, limited studies have explored the collective impact of its key components – ideal self, ought-to self, and learning experience – on predicting both L2 proficiency and ICC within a unified model. Moreover, most studies have investigated the influences of both ideal and ought-to selves (e.g. Gelişli & Kazykhankyzy, 2019; Jang & Lee, 2019; Papi & Khajavy, 2021) or solely focused on ideal self (e.g. Fathi & Hejazi, 2024; Fathi et al., 2023; Ghasemi, 2018; Oz, 2015), often overlooking the critical role of L2 learning experience. The inclusion of the L2 learning experience acknowledges the dynamic nature of language learning. Unlike the ideal and ought-to selves, which primarily reflect learners’ motivations and aspirations, the learning experience encapsulates the actual process of language acquisition, encompassing various instructional methods, classroom environments, and interactional contexts. By considering the impact of this factor, our research offers insights into the practical aspects of language learning that directly influence learners’ outcomes.

Furthermore, the acquisition of a foreign language frequently entails experiencing a spectrum of positive and negative emotions (Plonsky et al., 2022), to the extent that the classroom setting can be characterized as an ‘emotional space’ (Pekrun & Linnenbrink-Garcia, 2014). Emotions assume a considerable role in students’ learning and performance, pervading the landscape of school education. However, the domain of second language acquisition (SLA) has traditionally prioritized cognition, sidelining emotions (Swain, 2013) and often deeming them as inconsequential and irrational factors (Prior, 2019). However, over the past decade, within applied linguistics, there has been a notable shift towards recognizing the significance of emotions in L2 learning. This change, often referred to as the ‘affective turn’, reflects the increasing emphasis on emotions in foreign language research, largely propelled by developments in positive psychology and educational psychology (Dewaele & Li, 2020). Given the significant impact emotions hold in foreign language acquisition (Richards, 2022), this study seeks to explain the influence of learners’ motivations measured by L2MSS on their experience of enjoyment (a well-explored positive emotion that has garnered significant interest recently), anxiety (the most extensively explored negative emotion thus far), and boredom (a less-explored but prevalent negative emotion): three key emotions in the middle of learning a second language. The study further delves into how these emotions, in turn, affect their English proficiency and ICC.

Exploring the mediating pathways by which L2MSS influences L2 emotions, proficiency, and ICC holds substantial implications for language education. First, this investigation could offer important insights into the motivational factors that facilitate both successful language acquisition and ICC development. Such insights empower educators to design targeted and efficient language interventions personalized to individual learners. Second, the elucidation of the affective factors in the relationship between L2MSS, L2 proficiency, and ICC could inform the development of learner-centered strategies, enhancing the overall quality of language learning experiences. Additionally, the research findings would enhance the holistic comprehension of positive psychology elements in the realms of both L2 learning and ICC cultivation, establishing a fundamental basis for upcoming research ventures in this field.

Further, language learning does not occur in isolation but may be influenced by various contextual factors, including academic majors and institutional settings (Case, 2023; Gu, 2002). This study also explores whether EFL learners’ majors (English vs. non-English) may play a role in our hypothesized model. By including students of both English majors and non-English majors in the study, we broaden the scope of inquiry and provide insights into how motivational factors operate across diverse learner populations. English major students may have a more specialized interest in language learning, while non-English major students may approach language learning from a different perspective, such as fulfilling academic requirements or enhancing professional prospects. Additionally, students majoring in English focus primarily on this discipline, whereas students not majoring in English engage with it as a secondary aspect of their curriculum (Nguyen et al., 2022). Moreover, by capturing the experiences of learners from different academic backgrounds, our research provides a more nuanced understanding of the complex interplay between motivational factors, learning contexts, emotions relevant to L2 learning, and language learning outcomes. This comparative analysis sheds light on the generalizability of our findings and informs the development of targeted interventions, emotion regulation, and instructional strategies tailored to the specific needs and motivations of each learner group.

II Literature review

1 The relationships of L2MSS, L2 proficiency, and ICC

The L2MSS, a prominent motivational framework introduced by Dörnyei (2009), centers on three essential elements influencing language learners’ motivation and conduct during their pursuit of SLA. These components include the ideal L2 self, the ought-to L2 self, and the L2 learning experience, with profound inspiration drawn from the psychological concept of the ‘self’ (Higgins, 1987, 1998) and the two theories: possible selves (Markus & Nurius, 1986) and self-discrepancy theory (Higgins, 1987). In the framework of L2MSS, the ideal L2 self represents an individual’s envisioned future self proficient in L2 learning, embodying personal aspirations and hopes, and is believed to motivate individuals to commit to L2 learning. As learners engage in L2 learning out of personal interest rather than external obligations, this self is strongly associated with intrinsic motivation (Deci & Ryan, 1985). Prior studies have shown that this self not only has a strong association with integrativeness but also accounts for a greater proportion of variance in learners’ intended effort (e.g. S. Ryan, 2009; Taguchi et al., 2009). Upon acknowledging a misalignment between their current language skills and their envisioned future L2 proficiency, learners are prompted to engage in learning activities and invest effort to bridge this disparity (Dörnyei, 2009). The second component, referred to as the ought-to L2 self, reflects learners’ perceptions of external expectations and obligations within their language learning trajectory. These anticipations, influenced by people such as educators, parents, or peers, sculpt learners’ sense of duty to achieve specific language learning objectives. This self serves as a motivational impetus, compelling learners to fulfill external expectations by showcasing their language proficiency and achievements (Dörnyei, 2009). The instrumentality has a prevention focus, such as avoiding punishment or unsatisfactory academic outcomes. Learners motivated by this perspective are primarily driven by external factors rather than internalized motivations (McEown et al., 2014). The L2 learning experience component, integral to the L2MSS, delves into how environmental context shapes these selves, amalgamating past and ongoing language learning encounters. It encompasses the interaction between learners and the diverse external factors (e.g. teaching methodologies, classroom atmosphere), influencing their language learning journey. The language learning journey in L2 significantly influences learners’ engagement, interest, and emotional reactions to language acquisition. Positive and pleasurable learning experiences enhance motivation, while adverse experiences may curtail learners’ enthusiasm and dedication (Dörnyei, 2009).

In the realm of L2 acquisition research, educators and linguists have focused much attention on L2 learning achievement. Empirical endeavors have examined the correlation between the L2MSS and learners’ L2 achievements in various EFL contexts (e.g. M. Li & Zhang, 2021; Moskovsky et al., 2016; Yun et al., 2018) and among different L2 learners (Haghani & Maleki, 2018; M. Li & Zhang, 2021; Oakes & Howard, 2022; Zhao et al., 2022). These investigations have predominantly focused on exploring the influence of L2MSS sub-constructs on learners’ L2 performance. Results from these studies vary, and in some cases, they even contradict each other. Several investigations have proposed that the ideal self exerts direct or indirect favorable impacts on L2 accomplishment (e.g. Liu & Thompson, 2018; Wong, 2018; Yun et al., 2018). However, in some other studies (e.g. Calafato & Tang, 2019; Moskovsky et al., 2016), the ideal self was identified either as a non-predictor or a relatively weak predictor of L2 achievement. Similarly, the study results regarding the effects of learners’ ought-to self also vary. Some studies showed it had a direct negative effect on L2 achievement (e.g. Al-Hoorie, 2016; M. Li & Zhang, 2021; Liu & Thompson, 2018), whereas a few studies found that the ought-to self had no impact on L2 achievement (e.g. Calafato & Tang, 2019; Ge & Jin, 2016; Moskovsky et al., 2016). Furthermore, previous studies on the effects of learners’ learning experience on L2 achievement are also inconsistent. Several inquiries recognized its positive or marginal impacts (e.g. Lamb, 2012; Tan et al., 2017), whereas others uncovered no direct positive or even exhibited weak indirect negative effects (e.g. Moskovsky et al., 2016). Despite extensive testing and general endorsement among diverse L2 learners in various learning settings (Dörnyei & Ryan, 2015), the study results concerning the effects of L2MSS on L2 achievement are far from consistent. Moreover, in terms of Chinese EFL students, whether these effects would be different between English and non-English majors remains uncertain, thus warranting further investigation.

The examination of ICC, another variable under scrutiny, is recognized for its role in impacting successful interaction and efficient communication with individuals from varied cultures. The rationale for investigating this variable stems from the intrinsic link between culture and language (Byram, 1997; Kramsch, 1998). ICC encompasses three fundamental components – knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Deardorff, 2006) – providing EFL learners with the ability to communicate effectively in intercultural scenarios. ICC has gained prominence in this progressively interconnected global environment. Over the past years, researchers have undertaken empirical studies to explore diverse factors influencing the development of ICC. For example, Mirzaei and Forouzandeh (2013) found that motivation was positively associated with Iranian EFL learners’ ICC. In Oz’s (2015) study, a positive association was observed between ICC and the ideal L2 self, with the ideal L2 self being identified as a noteworthy predictor of ICC. Additionally, Ghasemi et al. (2020) proposed an ICC model that incorporated three moderating components: attitudes, knowledge, and skills. Their analysis of path coefficients revealed that the ideal L2 self served as both a direct and indirect factor influencing ICC. In a recent study by Ghasemi and Ahmadian (2023), a model of ICC was proposed integrating L2MSS, cognitive learning strategies, autonomy, and international posture. This model offered support for the direct positive association between L2MSS and ICC. Fathi et al. (2023) found that EFL learners’ ideal self was positively related to their ICC. In terms of learners’ ought-to self, some research found that it had a negative but not significant relationship with ICC (e.g. Gelişli & Kazykhankyzy, 2019). Overall, most studies investigating the link between L2MSS and ICC primarily consider L2MSS as a whole or focus more attention on the ideal self with limited attention paid to the effects of the ought-to self, and learning experience on learners’ ICC. The objective of this investigation is to bridge this void through an examination of how these determinants have a distinct impact on learners’ ICC. Moreover, previous studies also revealed that EFL learners’ language proficiency was significantly related to better acquisition of ICC (e.g. Huang, 2021; Sarwari & Abdul Wahad, 2018), suggesting that higher levels of English language proficiency would positively predict EFL learners’ ICC. However, studies probing into the relationship between ICC and L2 proficiency seem to be limited, thus necessitating further confirmation.

2 Foreign language enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom

Over the years, scholarly attention in SLA has predominantly centered on cognitive aspects (Sharwood Smith, 2017). Nevertheless, a recent pivot towards the ‘affective turn’ (Prior, 2019) has prompted researchers to acknowledge the crucial importance of emotions in the sphere of learning a foreign language. An increasing number of scholars, especially those under the influence of Positive Psychology, are embracing a more comprehensive and balanced outlook on these emotions, acknowledging both their negative and positive dimensions (Dewaele & Li, 2021; Dewaele et al., 2018; Dong et al., 2022; X. Wang & Li, 2022). In alignment with this contemporary conceptual approach, this section delves into foreign language enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom.

Enjoyment is defined as the feeling of contentment and fulfillment derived from the engagement in an activity and/or the positive result achieved from that activity (Ainley & Hidi, 2014). Foreign language enjoyment has emerged as a widely examined positive emotion (Jiang & Dewaele, 2019), taking a central place in the realm of positive emotions. It emerges as one of the prevailing and widespread positive emotions encountered by language learners across diverse foreign language learning environments (Piniel & Albert, 2018). Research indicates that experiencing enjoyment in EFL learning can alleviate stress, increase engagement in learning activities, and encourage participation in collaborative classroom behaviors (Longobardi et al., 2016; Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2021). This, in turn, has the potential to enhance learners’ language proficiency (H. Zhang et al., 2020). Indeed, numerous studies found that this positive emotion was a positive predictor of L2 achievement (e.g. Jin & Zhang, 2018; Li, 2019). A recent meta-analysis by Botes et al. (2022b) also revealed a positive association between foreign language enjoyment and academic achievement. This affirmative correlation can be ascribed to its function in promoting heightened attention to linguistic input (White, 2018) and alleviating stress, consequently bolstering learners’ inclination to undertake risks throughout the learning journey (Dewaele et al., 2018). Moreover, some studies have indicated a positive relationship between enjoyment and ICC (e.g. Fathi et al., 2023). Additionally, a recent study by Sadoughi and Hejazi (2024) examined the possible positive impacts of learners’ L2MSS, particularly the ideal self, on enjoyment (see also Fathi et al., 2023). Similarly, Papi and Khajavy (2021) also discovered a positive influence of ideal L2 self/own on enjoyment, subsequently enhancing L2 achievement. Further, Saito et al. (2018) found that greater ideal L2 self and enjoyment predicted the extent to which Japanese EFL learners practiced and developed their L2 speech.

In the realm of foreign language acquisition, anxiety has emerged as a key subject for exploration among negative emotions. This emotional condition, characterized as the uneasiness and negative emotional reaction evoked while engaging in L2 acquisition or use (Macintyre, 1999), has drawn considerable attention in SLA research due to its adverse effects. Aligned with the attentional control theory (Eysenck et al., 2007), anxiety hampers cognitive processing efficiency by adversely influencing attentional control within the working memory. Consequently, this impact may heighten learners’ susceptibility to irrelevant stimuli or distractions during language tasks. Anxious learners may harbor worries about potential failure and fear negative evaluations from others (Dewaele, 2010), leading to an underestimation of their linguistic competence (MacIntyre et al., 2002). This division of mental resources and reduced concentration could substantially diminish their willingness to communicate in L2 classes and interactions with L2 speakers, thus mitigating the development of ICC. Furthermore, prior research has demonstrated that individuals exhibiting elevated levels of anxiety experienced an adverse predictive impact on either actual or self-perceived foreign language performance (e.g. C. Li et al., 2020). This negative relation was also corroborated in a recent meta-analysis by X. Zhang (2019). Meanwhile, in a recent study by Dewaele et al. (2023b), anxiety emerged as a strong and negative predictor of EFL learners’ test scores (see also Dewaele et al., 2023a). In addition, research by Papi and Khajavy (2021) indicated that ought L2 self/other positively predicted L2 anxiety. In another study, Fathi and Mohammaddokht (2021) observed a negative correlation between anxiety and the ideal L2 self, whereas its association with enjoyment was positive.

Drawing from the three dimensions expounded in the control-value theory (CVT) (Pekrun, 2006), boredom within the realm of language learning is delineated as an adverse and deactivating emotion stemming from tasks that do not align with the needs or capabilities of learners (C. Li et al., 2022, 2023). Nevertheless, characterized as a ‘silent emotion’ (Pekrun et al., 2010), investigations into boredom remain constrained, predominantly carried out among English majors at the tertiary level in Poland (C. Li, 2021a). Boredom is a prevalent emotion encountered by learners in L2 classrooms (C. Li, 2021a, 2021b). As indicated by C. Li et al. (2023), a substantial 92.6% of Chinese students acknowledged experiencing boredom in the context of English learning. Qualitative data analysis based on interviews showed a curvilinear relationship between boredom and control appraisal. Both extremely high and low levels of control were found to be antecedents of boredom, indicating that students experienced boredom when they felt overwhelmed or under-challenged in English learning (Dewaele & Sanz Ferrer, 2022; C. Li, 2021a). Factors such as teacher-related aspects (e.g. dominant teacher talk) and task-related elements (e.g. repetitive pattern drills) may also contribute to EFL learners experiencing boredom. This, in turn, may diminish their enthusiasm and motivation for learning English, potentially impacting their overall proficiency in the language. A recent study by X. Wang and Li (2022) also found that those with higher levels of boredom had lower English achievement. Likewise, Dewaele et al. (2023b) demonstrated that boredom had a significant negative influence on language performance although this effect was relatively weaker than anxiety. Moreover, boredom is closely linked to decreased motivation and is often accompanied by negative affect and attitudes (Ndetei et al., 2023). Learners who find language learning boring may lack the enthusiasm to explore different cultural perspectives, engage in intercultural interactions, or invest effort in developing their language skills, hindering learners from effectively processing and internalizing intercultural knowledge and reducing their ICC. In addition, in recent years, scholars also found that L2MSS was also closely related to boredom. Cong and Yang (2023) revealed that Chinese EFL learners’ ideal self and learning experience were negatively correlated with boredom. However, no significant association was identified between ought-to self and boredom. Given the nascent stage of research in this domain, there is a scarcity of empirical investigations exploring the impact of this sentiment on foreign language acquisition and the cultivation of ICC.

Recent research has also started to investigate the mediating roles of foreign language enjoyment, anxiety and boredom in the context of language learning. For instance, Dewaele and Li (2021) reported that students’ enjoyment and boredom were found to jointly mediate the association between students’ perceptions of teacher enthusiasm and their social-behavioral engagement in English classes. Y. Wang (2023) found that Chinese EFL students’ enjoyment and anxiety played mediating roles in the interactions between perseverance of effort, consistency of interest and willingness to communicate using L2. Additionally, L.J. Zhang et al. (2022) observed the mediating role of boredom in the relationship between growth language mindset and willingness to communicate among EFL students from Iran. Although informative, these studies have concentrated on the mediating role of just one or two emotions. Indeed, only a few examining the combined effects of the three mentioned emotions through mediation analysis. For example, C. Li et al. (2022) revealed the mediating roles of these three L2 emotions between classroom environment and willingness to communicate in parallel. Further, Mei et al. (2024) investigated the relationship between regulatory focus dichotomy (promotion focus and prevention focus) and L2 grit among Chinese university EFL learners, considering the mediating roles of academic emotions such as enjoyment, boredom, hope, and anxiety. However, how these emotions jointly serve as mediators in the relationship between L2MSS, L2 proficiency, and ICC remains underexplored, thus prompting the necessity for this study.

III The current study

The present study seeks to examine the specific roles of L2MSS components (ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, and L2 learning experience), in predicting Chinese EFL learners’ L2 proficiency and ICC as well as the underlying mechanisms. Considering the important roles of language learners’ emotions in their journey of L2 learning and ICC development, we anticipated that learners’ L2MSS could arouse both positive (enjoyment) and negative emotions (anxiety and boredom), which may, in turn, influence their L2 proficiency and ICC development. In our hypothesized mediation model, we expected that these emotions concerning language learning would mediate the pathways linking L2MSS components, L2 proficiency and ICC (see Figure 1). The research questions that we set to address in this study are listed as follows:

Research question 1: How, and to what extent, can the L2MSS predict Chinese EFL learners’ L2 proficiency? And what roles can foreign language enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom play in-between?

Research question 2: How, and to what extent, can the L2MSS predict Chinese EFL learners’ ICC? And what roles can foreign language enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom play in-between?

Research question 3: Does Chinese EFL learners’ L2 proficiency have a positive effect on their ICC?

Research question 4: Will the abovementioned relationships differ significantly among Chinese EFL learners (English majors vs. non-English majors)?

Figure 1.

The proposed model.

IV Methodology

1 Participants

The study involved a sample of 2,755 Chinese EFL learners from the university who willingly participated in the survey. 42 participants were eliminated from the analysis due to certain missing information. It is imperative to highlight that we have rigorously upheld the privacy of our participants, ensuring that all collected data remains strictly confidential. The selected individuals’ ages varied between 18 and 27 years, with 1,313 or 48.40% of the participants identifying as female. Out of the total sample, 1,337 students (49.28%) were non-English majors. Participants were from four grades including 202 junior (7.44%) and 520 senior (19.17%) non-English major students. Although these students were generally not required to take English classes, many were still learning English for various purposes, such as passing the College English Test Band 4/6, preparing for the postgraduate entrance examination, and applying for overseas education.

2 Instruments

a L2MSS

The L2MSS was evaluated through the utilization of Papi’s (2010) survey instrument, which was initially developed in accordance with the framework proposed by Taguchi et al. (2009). This questionnaire encompasses three sub-scales: ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, and learning experience. Each sub-scale comprises 5 items and sample statements include (1) ‘Whenever I think of my future career, I imagine myself using English’ (ideal L2 self), (2) ‘If I fail to learn English, I’ll be letting other people down’ (ought-to L2 self), and (3) ‘Do you like the atmosphere of your English classes?’ (learning experience). For statement-type items (ideal and ought-to L2 self), participants’ responses were anchored on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Another five-point scale for question-type items from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much) was adopted to assess participants’ L2 learning experience. This measurement tool demonstrated good construct validity and strong internal consistency in past studies (e.g. Papi, 2010; Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2024).

b Enjoyment

The assessment of participants’ experiences of enjoyment in L2 acquisition involved the utilization of the Chinese Version of the Foreign Language Enjoyment Scale (CFLES), a tool validated by C. Li et al. (2018) in a sample comprising 1,718 Chinese senior secondary school students. Derived from Dewaele and MacIntyre’s (2014) Foreign Language Enjoyment Scale, initially validated with 1,742 L2 learners, the CFLES comprises 11 items distributed across three subscales: FLE-Private (5 items; e.g. ‘I’ve learnt interesting things’), FLE-Teacher (3 items; e.g. ‘The teacher is encouraging’), and FLE-Atmosphere (3 items; e.g. ‘It’s a positive environment’). Survey participants employed a five-point Likert scale spanning from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

c Anxiety

The 8-item Short-Form Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (S-FLCAS; Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014; MacIntyre, 1992), a condensed iteration of the initial 33-item scale formulated by Horwitz et al. (1986), was employed to evaluate participants’ perspectives on anxiety pertaining to L2 learning. This measurement tool has been frequently utilized and validated in emotions in foreign language research (e.g. Bai, 2023; Botes et al., 2022a). Items were scored on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). An example statement is ‘Even if I am well prepared for foreign language class, I feel anxious about it.’

d Boredom

The Foreign Language Classroom Boredom Subscale (FLCBS), a subscale of the Foreign Language Learning Boredom Scale (FLLBS), developed and validated by C. Li et al. (2023), was used to assess participants’ L2 boredom. The FLCBS consists of 8 items rated on a five-point Likert scale varying from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). A sample item is ‘My mind begins to wander in the English class.’ The FLCBS has been widely used and validated in previous studies (e.g. Bai, 2023; X. Wang & Li, 2022).

e L2 proficiency

Participants’ English proficiency was measured through self-reports using the questionnaire adapted from Li et al. (2006). Respondents were asked to rate their ability in four aspects: reading, writing, speaking, and listening. Responses were assessed on a seven-point Likert scale varying from 1 (very poor) to 7 (native-like). Previous studies suggest that self-assessment of language competence is an important indicator of L2 learners’ language proficiency (Aiello et al., 2017; Marian et al., 2007) and has been widely adopted in past studies (e.g. Kim & Kim, 2021; H. Zhang et al., 2020, 2021).

f ICC

The assessment of participants’ ICC utilized the questionnaire devised by Mirzaei and Forouzandeh (2013), a tool validated in prior research involving EFL learners (e.g. Fathi et al., 2023). This scale has 22 items with three subscales: socio-linguistic awareness (12 items; e.g. ‘I try to encounter well with the different dress customs of people in other countries’), cultural and linguistic knowledge (5 items; e.g. ‘I am eager to read articles on foreign cultures’), and cultural ambiguity tolerance (5 items; e.g. ‘When I am uncertain about cultural differences, I take a tolerant attitude’). Each statement was assessed on a five-point Likert scale, encompassing ratings from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

V Analysis and results

1 Descriptive statistics and comparative analysis

We first evaluated the comparability of the data between the two groups of students. Nearly all mean scores were close to or above the mid-point, ranging from 2.941 to 4.074 for the entire sample, 2.892 to 4.184 for the group of English major students, and 2.958 to 3.960 for non-English major students. As shown in Table 1, a series of Mann-Whitney U-tests for major revealed that English major students reported significantly higher scores on the scales of ideal self (Z = −3.697, p < 0.001), L2 proficiency (Z = −3.234, p = 0.001) and ICC (Z = −3.877, p < 0.001). Moreover, compared to the non-English major group, English major students scored significantly lower in boredom (Z = −2.831, p = 0.005).

Table 1.

Comparative analysis between English and non-English major students among variables.

	English majors (N = 1,376) (Group 1)			Non-English majors (N=1,337) (Group 2)			Group 1−Group 2	Z	p-value
	Mean rank	Sum of ranks	Median	Mean rank	Sum of ranks	Median	Mean rank difference
1. Ideal self	411.642	1942420.00	3.667	1300.764	1739121.00	2.667	110.878	−3.697	< 0.001
2. Ought-to self	1331.732	1832463.50	2.333	1383.005	1849077.50	2.833	−51.273	−1.709	0.087
3.Learning experience	1381.685	1901199.00	3.667	1331.595	1780342.00	3.333	50.090	−1.670	0.095
4. Enjoyment	1389.025	1911299.00	3.727	1324.040	1770242.00	2.455	64.985	−2.164	0.030
5. Anxiety	1331.522	1832174.00	3.375	1383.221	1849367.00	3.625	−51.699	−1.723	0.085
6. Boredom	1315.136	1809626.50	2.625	1400.086	1871914.50	3.750	−84.950	−2.831	0.005
7. ICC	1414.440	1946269.00	3.500	1297.885	1735272.00	2.864	116.555	−3.877	< 0.001
8. L2 proficiency	1404.829	1933044.50	5.000	1307.776	1748496.50	3.750	97.053	−3.234	0.001

Note. The significance level was set at p < 0.00625 after applying Bonferroni correction.

2 Testing the measurement model and common method bias

The confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) using the maximum likelihood method indicated acceptable goodness-of-fit indices for the full measurement model: χ² = 2505.009, df = 2386, χ²/df = 1.050, CFI = 0.999, GFI = 0.975, AGFI = 0.973, RMSEA = 0.004, and SRMR = 0.012. To assess convergent validity, Table 2 presents Cronbach’s alpha (α), standardized factor loadings, composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE). Following the guidance of Hair et al. (2019), it is recommended that factor loadings exceed 0.50. The results indicate that standardized factor loadings for study variables, ranging from 0.727 to 0.838 for all items, surpass the recommended threshold. Reliability assessments were further conducted using α and CR for the latent variables. Following the guidelines set forth by Nunnally and Bernstein (1994), CR and α values above 0.70 are deemed satisfactory. In terms of convergent validity, an AVE value exceeding 0.50 is considered acceptable (Teo & Noyes, 2014). As illustrated in Table 2, all constructs fulfill these criteria, indicating that the measurement model possesses adequate reliability and convergent validity.

Table 2.

Reliability and convergent validity for the measurement model.

Constructs	α	Standardized factor loadings	CR	AVE
Ideal self	0.91	0.776–0.804	0.908	0.623
Ought-to self	0.91	0.787–0.804	0.911	0.631
Learning experience	0.91	0.787–0.804	0.912	0.632
Enjoyment	0.95	0.784–0.805	0.949	0.630
Anxiety	0.94	0.814–0.828	0.942	0.671
Boredom	0.94	0.807–0.819	0.941	0.667
ICC	0.97	0.727–0.769	0.966	0.562
L2 proficiency	0.90	0.809–0.838	0.896	0.683

Table 3 illustrates the correlation between constructs and the square roots of the AVEs, serving to confirm the discriminant validity of latent variables. Following Fornell et al. (1982), the diagonal elements of the matrix should exceed the values in their corresponding off-diagonal rows and columns. Upon scrutinizing the data, it becomes evident that the square roots of the AVEs for each construct exceed the correlation coefficients with other variables. This observation suggests that the measurement model possesses commendable discriminant validity.

Table 3.

Discriminant validity for the measurement model.

Constructs	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8
1. Ideal self	(0.789)
2. Ought-to self	−0.489***	(0.794)
3. Learning experience	0.474***	−0.481***	(0.795)
4. Enjoyment	0.441***	−0.463***	0.462***	(0.794)
5. Anxiety	−0.360***	0.370***	−0.349***	−0.347***	(0.819)
6. Boredom	−0.326***	0.350***	−0.312***	−0.304***	0.477***	(0.817)
7. ICC	0.465***	−0.498***	0.456***	0.433***	−0.449***	−0.430***	(0.750)
8. L2 proficiency	0.470***	−0.493***	0.472***	0.451***	−0.495***	−0.470***	0.491***	(0.826)

Notes. Values in parentheses (in bold) represent the square root of AVE (average variance extracted). ***p < 0.001.

In addition, as the research design employed a cross-sectional approach, there exists a potential for Common Method Bias (CMB) (Podsakoff et al., 2003). To assess this bias, Harman’s single-factor test was conducted using SPSS by constraining all items from loading onto a single factor without rotation. CMB is typically assumed if the variance explained by this factor exceeds the threshold of 50%. However, in the Harman CMB test conducted for this study, only one factor could explain a mere 39.493% of the variance, indicating that CMB did not pose a big concern in this research.

3 Testing the structural model and the hypotheses

The relationships hypothesized in the proposed research model were established using SEM (see Figure 1 Research model). First, the SEM results demonstrated a good data fit of the hypothesized model: χ² = 3149.166, df = 2389, χ²/df = 1.318, CFI = 0.995, GFI = 0.969, AGFI = 0.967, RMSEA = 0.011, and SRMR = 0.043. Furthermore, the results of the structural model for the whole sample illustrating the standardized coefficients for hypothesized pathways are shown in Figure 2. Ideal self and learning experience were positively related to enjoyment (β = 0.221, p < 0.001; β = 0.265, p < 0.001), ICC (β = 0.145, p < 0.001; β = 0.139, p < 0.001), and L2 proficiency (β = 0.154, p < 0.001; β = 0.164, p < 0.001), respectively, and were negatively correlated with anxiety (β = −0.196, p < 0.001; β = −0.169, p < 0.001) and boredom (β = −0.172, p < 0.001; β = −0.152, p < 0.001). By contrast, ought-to self was found to negatively predict enjoyment (β = −0.313, p < 0.001), ICC (β = −0.206, p < 0.001), and L2 proficiency (β = −0.202, p < 0.001), and positively predict anxiety (β = 0.248, p < 0.001) and boredom (β = 0.249, p < 0.001). Moreover, enjoyment had a significant positive relationship with ICC (β = 0.104, p < 0.001) and L2 proficiency (β = 0.127, p < 0.001), whereas anxiety and boredom were negatively associated with ICC (β = −0.157, p < 0.001; β = −0.125, p < 0.001) and L2 proficiency (β = −0.222, p < 0.001; β = −0.151, p < 0.001). L2 proficiency positively influenced ICC (β = 0.084, p < 0.001). In addition, according to the results of the mediation analysis displayed in Table 4, enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom played significant mediating roles in the hypothesized L2MSS→L2 proficiency and L2MSS→ICC relationships with the 95% CIs of all pathways excluding 0 (see Table 4), confirming the indirect effects of the three types of emotions.

Figure 2.

Standardized structural model (full sample).

Table 4.

Indirect testing results for the structural model.

Pathways			Standardized coefficient	SE	Bootstrapping 5,000 times 95% CI
Predictor	Mediator	Outcome	Standardized coefficient	SE	Lower	Upper
Ideal self	Enjoyment	L2 proficiency	0.028***	0.005	0.019	0.040
	Anxiety		0.043***	0.008	0.029	0.061
	Boredom		0.026***	0.006	0.016	0.039
	Enjoyment	ICC	0.023***	0.005	0.015	0.034
	Anxiety		0.031***	0.007	0.019	0.046
	Boredom		0.022***	0.005	0.013	0.034
Ought-to self	Enjoyment	L2 proficiency	−0.040***	0.007	−0.054	−0.028
	Anxiety		−0.055***	0.009	−0.074	−0.039
	Boredom		−0.038***	0.007	−0.053	−0.025
	Enjoyment	ICC	−0.033***	0.006	−0.045	−0.022
	Anxiety		−0.039***	0.008	−0.056	−0.025
	Boredom		−0.031***	0.007	−0.045	−0.019
Learning experience	Enjoyment	L2 proficiency	0.034***	0.006	0.023	0.047
	Anxiety		0.038***	0.008	0.025	0.055
	Boredom		0.023***	0.006	0.013	0.036
	Enjoyment	ICC	0.028***	0.005	0.018	0.039
	Anxiety		0.027***	0.006	0.016	0.041
	Boredom		0.019***	0.005	0.010	0.030

Notes. SE = standard error. ***p < 0.001.

4 Measurement invariance

The measurement invariance of the latent variables using multiple-group CFA was examined to assess whether the study constructs had the same meaning across the groups (Byrne, 2016). We investigated configural (Model 1), metric (Model 2), and scalar invariance (Model 3), aligning with previous research (e.g. Alrawad et al., 2023). The results of measurement invariance are displayed in Table 5. Configural invariance was assessed by comparing constructs and evaluating the model fit indices across groups (Kline, 2011; Steenkamp & Baumgartner, 1998). We evaluated the factor loadings for each latent factor in the measurement model. All factor loadings were found to be significant and aligned with our expectations. Furthermore, the model fit for the English-major, and non-English major models based on CFA was highly satisfactory. The configural model also fitted the data well: χ² = 4917.993, df = 4772, χ²/df = 1.031, CFI = 0.999, GFI = 0.952, AGFI = 0.949, RMSEA = 0.003, and SRMR = 0.0157. This indicates that the measurement model passed the configural invariance.

Table 5.

Measurement invariance of English and non-English majors.

	Goodness-of-fit index					Model comparison
Model	χ²	df	CFI	RMSEA	SRMR	Model	Δχ²	Δdf	Δ RMSEA	Δ CFI	p-value
M1: Configural invariance	4917.993	4772	0.999	0.003	0.0157
M2: Metric invariance	4983.776	4835	0.999	0.003	0.0161	M2 vs M1	65.783	63	0.000	0.000	0.381
M3: Scalar invariance	5091.835	4906	0.999	0.004	0.0162	M3 vs M2	108.059	71	0.001	0.000	0.003

Then the next step is to test metric invariance, which assumes equal factor loadings between groups (Byrne, 2016; Kline, 2011). In other words, metric invariance necessitates examining the measurement model by applying constraints to the factor coefficients across both subgroups. To achieve measurement invariance, it is essential to ensure that the differences in the chi-square (Δχ²), and degrees of freedom (Δdf) should not be significant (p > 0.05). Given that the chi-square test is sensitive to sample size, metric invariance should be further assessed by ensuring that the ΔCFI from the configural invariance is below 0.01, the ΔRMSEA is less than 0.015, and the ΔSRMR is less than 0.03 (Chen, 2007). If metric invariance is supported, then scalar invariance should be examined. Scalar invariance is assessed by additionally equalizing items’ intercepts while keeping the restriction on factor loadings across the tested groups. Achieving scalar invariance requires ΔCFI from the metric invariance model to be less than 0.01, ΔRMSEA less than 0.015, and ΔSRMR less than 0.10 (Chen, 2007). As for the metric invariance, the difference in χ² was not significant (Δχ² = 65.783, Δdf = 63, p = 0.381), suggesting no evidence against metric invariance. And for the scalar invariance, the increase in χ² was significant (Δχ² = 108.059, Δdf = 71, p = 0.003). However, the differences in CFI, SRMR, and RMSEA between these models fulfilled the criteria recommended by Chen (2007) and Rutkowski and Svetina (2014), providing strong evidence for scalar equivalence.

5 Multigroup SEM analysis

A multigroup SEM analysis that used students’ major as a possible moderating variable was performed in the present study to investigate whether the hypothesized model was equivalent for both English and non-English major students. Following the procedures employed in previous publications (e.g. Alrawad et al., 2023; Deng et al., 2024; Gaskin, 2016), two models were developed for each group. Model 4 was the unconstrained model while Model 5 was constructed with constraints applied equally to the regression weights. All regression weights were simultaneously subjected to constraints to assess the possible interaction effects across the entire model. The χ² values of these models were then compared. Model 4 yields satisfactory fit indices: χ² = 5557.903, df = 4778, χ²/df = 1.163, CFI = 0.994, GFI = 0.947, AGFI = 0.943, RMSEA = 0.008, and SRMR = 0.040. As shown in Table 6, the difference in χ² value between Model 4 and 5 was not statistically significant (χ² = 32.989, Δdf = 22, p = 0.062), suggesting that there were no significant differences in the hypothesized paths of the structural model between English and non-English major students.

Table 6.

Structural model invariance test results.

Model	χ²	df	CFI	RMSEA	SRMR	p-value	Invariant
M4: Unconstrained	5557.903	4778	0.994	0.008	0.040
M5: Structural weights	5590.892	4800	0.994	0.008	0.045
Difference	32.989	22	0.000	0.000	0.005	0.062	Yes

VI Discussion

The principal aim of this investigation was to scrutinize the impacts of L2MSS, enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom in L2 learning on both L2 proficiency and ICC among Chinese college EFL learners. Specifically, it delved into how enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom mediate the connections between L2MSS components, L2 proficiency, and ICC. In addition, a multigroup analysis was performed to test the moderation effects of respondents’ majors in the study model.

Regarding research question 1, the outcomes unveiled a direct and positive prediction of the ideal self to L2 proficiency, aligning with previous research (e.g. Fathi et al., 2023; Liu & Thompson, 2018). This observation resonates with Al-Hoorie’s (2018) comprehensive meta-analysis, emphasizing the constructive impact of the ideal self on forecasting L2 achievement. The strong presence of the ideal L2 self motivates Chinese EFL learners to engage in L2 communication and fosters interaction with diverse communities, facilitating the attainment of higher levels of L2 proficiency. The psychological gap between current abilities and desired proficiency can also motivate them to actively engage in L2 learning activities (Papi, 2010). Moreover, the study results also suggested that the ideal L2 self was positively linked to enjoyment and negatively related to anxiety and boredom, which, in turn, affected L2 proficiency. Given the positive association between the ideal L2 self and the intensity of motivation (Feng & Papi, 2020), learners possessing a more defined ideal L2 self might encounter heightened enjoyment (Fathi & Hejazi, 2024), diminished levels of anxiety and boredom (Papi, 2010; Sun et al., 2023), and demonstrate an increased proclivity to relish the learning process (Tahmouresi & Papi, 2021). This, in turn, is likely to significantly contribute to the enhancement of their L2 proficiency (Kim & Kim, 2014). Furthermore, in agreement with the findings of previous studies (e.g. Subekti, 2018), learning experience was found to be positively associated with L2 proficiency. Positive and enjoyable learning experiences, influenced by contextual factors such as the teacher’s instructional methods, peer interactions, and teaching materials, have the potential to increase learners’ interest, motivation, and engagement in the learning process, leading to increased exposure and practice with the target language (Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2023; Sadoughi et al., 2023). These favorable experiences may subsequently contribute to an increased sense of enjoyment in L2 learning while mitigating negative emotions like anxiety and boredom (Olsen, 2017; Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2024), which causes EFL learners to feel more motivated and secure. Notably, the results indicated that ought-to self negatively and directly predicted L2 proficiency and this negative relationship was also mediated by more anxiety and boredom and less enjoyment. In fact, the ought-to self can result in greater anxiety about L2 learning (Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2024), possibly impeding EFL learners’ cognitive processes and language acquisition. Additionally, the sense of obligation and demanding expectations could contribute to feelings of boredom, diminishing engagement, and enthusiasm among learners, and concurrently mitigating the positive impact of enjoyment on language proficiency. As indicated in prior research, individuals who sense the burden of meeting externally imposed responsibilities, such as the expectations of significant others, tend to encounter heightened levels of negative emotions like anxiety (Papi, 2010). Consequently, this results in a reduced tendency to actively involve and participate in the L2 learning process, ultimately diminishing their L2 proficiency.

Addressing research question 2, the findings indicated that the ideal self and learning experience exhibited positive and direct predictive effects on ICC. Conversely, the ought-to self demonstrated a negative association with ICC. Moreover, enjoyment was found to positively influence ICC whereas anxiety and boredom negatively affected ICC. Specifically, previous studies (e.g. Fathi et al., 2023; Oz, 2015) have highlighted the positive role of the ideal self in impacting ICC. Higher levels of ideal self can motivate EFL learners to actively participate in interactions across diverse communities and interact with individuals from diverse linguistic and ethnic backgrounds, fostering a sense of identification with ‘internationalism’ and global communities (Byram, 2013). In line with the existing literature (e.g. Dörnyei, 2009; Mirzaei & Forouzandeh, 2013), it can be said that learners visualizing themselves as proficient L2 users may exhibit increased interest and enjoyment in engaging with the target culture, fostering a sense of competence and confidence in participating in L2 interactions. Moreover, EFL learners who picture themselves as adept users of the target language are less prone to experiencing adverse emotions such as anxiety and boredom, feel more motivated to embrace cultural differences, show respect for others’ norms and values, and demonstrate enhanced intercultural competence. Also, EFL learners’ learning experience can play a significant part in their ICC enhancement. Indeed, Peng and Woodrow (2010) emphasized the significance of the classroom environment in fostering learners’ L2 communication competence and willingness to communicate. Pleasant and positive L2 learning experiences, influenced by factors such as effective instructional methodologies, active peer/learner group dynamics, enthusiastic classroom atmosphere, and quality teaching materials, serve to heighten learners’ interest, motivation, and engagement in L2 learning (Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2023). Meanwhile, learners who perceive the situational incentives and encounters within their immediate language learning milieu as more positive and enjoyable are inclined to undergo reduced levels of stress, anxiety, and boredom (Papi, 2010). As a result, they are more likely to engage actively (Sadoughi et al., 2023) and initiate communication in their classes, contributing to the development of intercultural awareness, sensitivity, and communication skills. Lastly, EFL learners’ ought-to selves exerted a negative impact on their ICC. The pressure to conform to the imposed obligations can trigger heightened levels of anxiety and boredom within the language learning process, leading to reduced enjoyment. This may cause EFL learners to feel stressed or apprehensive about L2 language use in intercultural settings, diminishing learners’ willingness to actively engage in intercultural interactions (Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2024). All in all, given the fact that the literature on the effect of the ought-to self and learning experience on ICC is fairly scarce, the findings of the current study may provide important implications for future studies on the significant influence of ought-to self and learning experience on ICC.

As for research question 3, EFL learners’ L2 proficiency was found to lead to higher levels of ICC, which is congruent with the results of Sarwari and Abdul Wahad (2018) and Huang (2021). This is expected as the language of instruction in many classes is English. Higher proficiency in English leads to a better comprehension of course materials pertaining to cultural knowledge, emphasizing the significance of target language proficiency in the cultivation of ICC (Fantini, 2009). Previous studies also indicated that L2 proficiency was linked to increased intercultural sensitivity (e.g. Olson & Kroeger, 2001; Wu, 2016). The correlation between language and culture is perceived as ‘intertwined’, ‘reciprocal’, and ‘inextricably connected’ (Liddicoat et al., 2003). Scholars argue that acquiring a foreign language allows learners to grasp a culture, worldview, and a way of life distinct from their own, fostering a reduction in stereotypes and an increased tolerance for cultural differences (Gojkov-Rajić & Prtljaga, 2013). Moreover, a heightened L2 proficiency facilitates a more profound comprehension of cultural intricacies, beliefs, and behaviors. This, in turn, empowers Chinese EFL learners to adeptly navigate and communicate in diverse linguistic and cultural settings. Language proficiency also enables learners to express themselves more clearly and accurately, reducing the likelihood of misinterpretations and misunderstandings in cross-cultural interactions. Therefore, proficient language skills contribute to increased confidence and comfort in communicative situations, helping language learners foster a positive attitude toward engaging with people from different cultural backgrounds. As learners acquire the language, they gain insights into the cultures of their speakers, promoting a deeper understanding of cultural diversity and helping to dismantle stereotypes and prejudices (Canagarajah, 2012; Hossain, 2024).

In addition, as to research question 4, the results of the measurement invariance suggest that the measurement model was consistently interpreted across different groups (English vs. non-English majors). The multigroup SEM analysis did not find significant distinctions across the two groups in the hypothesized relationships. The factors like the ideal self and positive aspects of the L2 learning experience may consistently impact L2 proficiency and ICC development across different learner groups. Given the global status of English and the opportunities for both English and non-English major students to learn English to stay updated with the latest advancements in their fields and prepare for future careers, it can be inferred that students recognize their required learning aligns with their personal goals, such as pursuing education abroad and preparing for their future profession. This alignment helps students perceive the value and relevance of their learning, thereby enhancing their motivation (Ngo et al., 2017), which positively impacts their L2 proficiency and ICC development. Additionally, it further explains the reasons why no major differences are also reported in relation to the impact of ought-to self on L2 proficiency and ICC development. That is to say, regardless of the pressure or expectations learners place on themselves (or perceive from others) to achieve certain language skills or intercultural competencies, their proficiency and development in these areas are not notably moderated by majors.

Notably, the study results showed that the impact of emotions on L2 proficiency and ICC was consistent across different groups of learners. It somewhat corroborates the findings of K. Li et al. (2023) who showed that there was no notable distinction in the effects of listening anxieties on self-perceived listening performance between students majoring in English and those majoring in other fields. It can also be further explained by the Pekrun’s (2006) CVT. According to this theory, emotions are closely related to appraisals of achievement-related control and value. Emotions experienced in academic settings are influenced by the perceived control over learning activities and the value attached to those activities. When students feel in control of their learning and value achievement, positive emotions like enjoyment, hope, and pride are fostered, while negative emotions such as anxiety, hopelessness, and boredom are diminished. Meanwhile, the cognitive-motivational model of emotion effects (Pekrun, 2006), integrated within the CVT, suggests that the impact of emotions on learning and achievement is contingent on the interaction between different cognitive and motivational processes. Empirical evidence from cross-sectional and longitudinal studies indicates that positive activating emotions, such as enjoyment, hope, and pride, enhance learning and performance by boosting interest, motivation, effort, self-regulation, the use of adaptive learning strategies, and the availability of cognitive resources for completing tasks (e.g. Loderer et al., 2020; Pekrun et al., 2017). Negative emotions like anxiety, anger, shame, boredom, and hopelessness, however, generally diminish interest and motivation, weaken self-regulation, lead to the use of inflexible or superficial learning strategies, and trigger irrelevant thoughts, thereby depleting the cognitive resources necessary for effective task performance (e.g. Pekrun et al., 2014, 2017) and can be detrimental to academic performance for many students (Pekrun et al., 2011). According to CVT, these impacts of emotions on achievement are expected to be consistent across various academic disciplines (Shao et al., 2020). Students’ perceptions of control and value may forecast academic results in a similar interactive manner as they stimulate various emotions related to achievement. In this sense, students who feel in control and value acquiring L2 and ICC skills are likely to experience positive emotions, which would strengthen their interest, effort, and engagement, thus leading to higher L2 proficiency and ICC. Conversely, negative emotions would arise when students lack control or do not value the learning process, thus diminishing involvement and proficiency. Despite the differences in their major fields of study, both English and non-English major students may experience similar emotional responses due to comparable levels of perceived control and value related to L2 learning and ICC development, leading to consistent impacts on their learning outcomes.

Additionally, results from the Mann–Whitney U-tests demonstrated that English major students demonstrated a higher score in ideal self compared to non-English major students, further corroborating Ueki and Takeuchi’s (2013) findings. It indicates that English major students who learn English to prepare for their future profession and personal development feel more intrinsically motivated and less compelled to learn English out of obligation (Huong Ngo & Mergler, 2017). Moreover, the scores of ICC, and L2 proficiency they reported were observed to be significantly higher compared to non-English majors. In closer examination, these differences suggest that English major students, potentially due to their academic specialization or language-focused coursework and assignments, may have a more positive orientation toward language learning and ICC development. In China, non-English major students at college have to learn English simply because English is mandatory (M. Li, 2012). According to the self-determination theory (Deci & Ryan, 1985), being compelled to engage in a task can lead to a strong sense of obligation, which may diminish an individual’s motivation to perform the task (R.M. Ryan & Deci, 2002). As a result, many non-English major students may find English learning boring and unpleasant, thereby negatively affecting their English proficiency and ICC development.

VII Limitations and further directions

The present investigation possesses specific constraints. First, it embraced a cross-sectional design and acquired data through the utilization of questionnaires. Subsequent research is advised to employ a longitudinal framework and integrate qualitative approaches, including interviews, think-aloud protocols, narrative inquiry, and simulated recall, to offer a more thorough examination of the determinants impacting learners’ L2 proficiency and ICC. Furthermore, considering the dynamic nature of foreign language enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom, an experimental design could be employed to observe and document their developmental patterns and dynamics. Second, given that this research was conducted within a distinct EFL context in China, characterized by its specific educational, socio-political, and economic attributes, it is crucial to proceed cautiously when extending the findings to other EFL settings or those involving English as a Second Language. In addition, considering the inherent disparities between traditional classroom instruction and digital learning platforms, there is an intriguing prospect to reproduce this investigation within virtual language learning environments. Such replication holds the promise of offering additional perspectives on the influential functions of L2MSS components, as well as foreign language enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom, in molding both L2 proficiency and ICC. Third, since some participants in our study, particularly those in their third and fourth years of college, were not required to take English classes, the use of certain instruments, such as measures for anxiety and boredom, which primarily target classroom scenarios, may not effectively capture these EFL learners’ emotions related to English learning. Therefore, future studies should consider adopting alternative measures applicable to diverse contexts. Fourth, another limitation of our study lies in the use of the measures for L2 proficiency and ICC. The use of self-reported measures may introduce a potential source of bias, as participants may not always provide an accurate reflection of their actual language proficiency and ICC levels. To address this limitation, future research endeavors should consider incorporating more objective and scientific measures to assess L2 proficiency. This may involve employing multiple rounds of comprehensive language tests like TOEFL and IELTS that integrate listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills, rather than relying solely on a one-time self-report or a single test. Additionally, for a more robust evaluation of ICC, researchers could explore the implementation of more scientific methods, such as observational assessments or intercultural communication scenarios that simulate real-life interactions. This shift toward objective and standardized evaluation methods will enhance the reliability and validity of findings, thereby contributing to a more nuanced comprehension of the relationships between L2MSS, L2 proficiency, and ICC among L2 learners.

VIII Conclusions and implications

Grounded in the L2MSS theoretical framework, the present study explored the effects of L2MSS on students’ L2 proficiency and ICC development and tested the mediating roles of enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom in the Chinese EFL context. The study further tested whether there were significant differences in these relationships among students of English majors and non-English majors. The results of this research indicated that (1) ideal self and L2 learning experience predicted higher levels of L2 proficiency and ICC, whereas ought-to self was found to negatively affect these two outcomes, (2) foreign language enjoyment, anxiety, and boredom separately mediated the relationship between L2MSS, L2 proficiency, and ICC, (3) students with higher L2 proficiency tended to report a higher level of ICC, (4) the multigroup analysis showed that the hypothesized relationships were not significantly moderated by students’ majors. These findings shed light on the important roles of L2MSS and positive and negative emotions relevant to language learning in predicting students’ L2 and ICC proficiency.

Moreover, this study offers significant implications for educators and practitioners alike. From a pedagogical perspective, EFL teaching should address the pressures faced by EFL learners, especially English majors, such as aligning external expectations with internal motivation to reduce boredom and anxiety. Teachers should also focus on fostering a positive language learning experience and enhancing the ideal self-concept across all learner groups. Moreover, it is imperative to incorporate interventions targeting learners’ emotions throughout the language learning process. Without a doubt, students immersed in a stimulating and pleasurable educational setting are more likely to tap into their complete capabilities in language learning (Dewaele & MacIntyre, 2014). Conversely, learners facing challenges, boredom, or anxiety may impede their linguistic growth and ICC development, and even compromise their overall well-being (Oxford, 2016). To address this issue, language teachers should adapt their classroom practices and build positive relationships with students to create a stress-free and non-threatening learning environment, both in general and within specific domains (e.g. online or offline settings). Furthermore, they can provide significant emotional, instrumental, and supportive assistance to learners, amplifying their involvement and fostering active participation and enjoyment in classroom activities (Sadoughi & Hejazi, 2021). This, in turn, may help alleviate learners’ anxiety and boredom, fostering a sense of security (Piechurska-Kuciel, 2011) and bolstering their emotion-control capacity. Besides, educators should steer clear of establishing unattainable expectations for attaining native-like proficiency in L2 (Richards, 2022), as this could potentially diminish students’ enthusiasm and dedication to English language learning as a whole (Hejazi & Sadoughi, 2023). Last but not least, to enhance L2 learners’ ICC, instructors can integrate diverse methods, including engaging in virtual interactions with native speakers, utilizing video conferencing, facilitating cultural debates, and employing cultural capsules. which may help deepen EFL learners’ intercultural awareness. With the rapid progress in technology, language teachers can leverage innovative interactive tools like tandem learning, Google Expedition, and augmented reality to cultivate students’ intercultural sensitivity and comprehension. Curriculum designers and creators of educational materials may also consider integrating language tasks that contribute to the development of learners’ intercultural knowledge and skills. Most importantly, teachers themselves should possess sufficient intercultural competence to effectively elevate their students’ ICC levels (Sercu et al., 2004). Consequently, teacher training programs should prioritize enhancing the intercultural competence of EFL instructors.

Footnotes

Author contributions

All authors approved the content of the manuscript and contributed significantly to the research involved/the writing of the manuscript. LJT contributed to the conceptualization, formal analysis, methodology, software, and writing. CAZ contributed to project administration, resources, supervision, and writing: review and editing. YC contributed to the data curation, writing-review and editing.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical approval

All procedures performed in the study were in accordance with the ethical standards of the institutional and/or national research committee and with the 1964 Helsinki Declaration and its later amendments or comparable ethical standards.

Informed consent

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

ORCID iDs

Lingjie Tang

Yu Cui

Data Availability

The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author. The data are not publicly available due to privacy or ethical restrictions.

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