‘Keep it to yourself’: Shame and female masturbation in American independent cinema

Introduction

Discussing the treatment of masturbation in the 19th century, Steven Marcus has noted how the act has been associated with insanity and religion as it was regarded as an affront to procreation and rooted in biblical references (1966: 21; see also Arnold, 2009). Marcus clearly acknowledges the dubiousness of causality in this reasoning. It is for the sin of masturbation that Onan was put to death by God (Genesis, 38: 8–10). ¹ In turn, this story has facilitated the belief that any sexual activity not leading to procreation is wicked and wasteful, a view that proliferated during the Victorian period.

Of course, this early negative conception of masturbation is almost wholly phallocentric, down to its primary offence as a barrier to procreation; conversely, female masturbation does not threaten heterosexual reproduction, although the morality of the act has been measured in different terms. In Marcus’s survey of Victorian attitudes towards and writing on masturbation, the intended subject of each discussion is almost overwhelmingly male. The popularisation of psychoanalysis eventually aided in debunking some of the negative Victorian myths regarding the results of masturbation, although Freud’s work, which asserts that masturbation is a signal of inversion (1977 [1905]: 58–9) and either resultant of, or a cause of, insanity if maintained in adulthood (1979 [1909]: 82–86 n.b. 82–83 and 1979 [1911 and 1910]: 193), is still, at least in part, rooted in some of these myths.

Joseph Bristow acknowledges the work of sexologist Iwan Bloch in the early 1900s in developing psychoanalytic theories of masturbation, which attempted to question popularly held beliefs and the social stigma in relation to this activity (Bristow, 1997: 34–35). Further contributions made by statistical researchers such as Alfred Kinsey revealed how common autoeroticism was amongst people regardless of age or gender, countering the Victorian assumptions addressed by Marcus. While the stigma of masturbation historically resides with the male in practical terms – the biblical story of Onan is exemplary of the notion of reproductive wastefulness – female masturbation, particularly from the late 1960s onwards, has framed this action as indicative of female empowerment and liberation.

Lynne Segal, writing of the politics of sexual desire, notes work in the early 1970s that attempted to not only create popular acceptance of female masturbation but also to promote and praise the activity as positive for the advancement of female sexual identity (1994: 37–38). However, she explicates the fact that theoretical problems still arise, even while it remains pleasurable and empowering. Segal writes:

It is never really ‘me, myself, alone’, but always thoughts of being desired by, dominated by, or variously handled by others, thoughts of desiring, subordinating or variously using others, that excite us; even during, and perhaps especially in, masturbation… Whether in our dreams (in conscious reverie or in sleep) or in sharing our lives with another (however briefly), it is always some other significant person or persons by whom we are excited, comforted or tormented. It is those special others, real or imaginary, who arouse us with their promise, denial or threat of physical intimacy, pleasure, relationships, or much of the time – at least as I experience it – who incite a fairly constant and chronic desire just to be held close, and to hold, to smell, to taste, to kiss, to stroke and to feel some particular other person deep inside our arms, mouth, cunt. (1994: 246–247)

Sex psychologist Kenneth Walker once wrote that ‘It is therefore better to admit from the start that masturbation is the rule rather than the exception’ (1940: 185) The fact that Walker’s work is now over 70 years old demonstrates that the normality of autoeroticism is not a recent observation (see Abramson and Mosher, 1975; Bloom, 2010; Freud, 1977 [1905]; Morris, 1967). This acceptance has been echoed more recently by Jeffrey Weeks who writes, ‘Masturbation is no longer the gateway to horrors among young people, and is encouraged by books, magazines and newspapers on every station bookstall, and one of the pleasures positively incited by the internet’ (2010: 91). Walker concluded in 1940 that, ‘We cannot, in consequence, regard the habit as a perversion, but must consider it as a normal phenomenon’ (1940: 185). While increased public discourse of masturbation, and particularly female masturbation, can be seen as indicative of a cultural advance, its representation within art, particularly art within a production model aiming for wider distribution, arguably appears regressive.

However, if masturbation has long been established as a ‘normal phenomenon’ in the social sciences, then the cinematic depiction of it as a perversity proves a curiosity. When it does address masturbation, American drama in particular regularly resorts to presenting it as a dark, shameful, or at the very least uncomfortable activity within the realm of human behaviour. While contemporary American cinema has provided examples of male masturbation, such as in There’s Something About Mary (1998; dir. Farrelly), The Squid and the Whale (2005; dir. Baumbach), Kick-Ass (2010; dir. Vaughn), and Paul Thomas Anderson’s films Boogie Nights (1997) and Punch-Drunk Love (2002), it has also shown that masturbation is not solely the province of the male; female masturbation is depicted almost as regularly and as equally shameful. The consideration of this activity in relation to female characters tends towards reflecting on negative behavioural traits, occasionally framing masturbation as a transgressive paraphilia. We therefore aim to explore this tendency within the internationally visible realm of American filmmaking.

This subject has been addressed by Lauren Rosewarne who claims ‘Whereas female masturbation tends to be sensuous and included to arouse the audience, the self-stimulation of men is generally treated vastly differently.’ (2014: 2). ² Rosewarne, however, opens her discussion to cinema more broadly, incorporating case studies from international sources, whereas our observations of American cinema appear to align with Rosewarne’s addressing of exceptions, stating ‘a small number of unsexy displays of female masturbation are detected,’ (2014: 3). The intersection of depictions of masturbation and the psychoanalytic conception and framing of shame is not only largely excluded, but also significant to the understanding of such representations.

This tendency will be analysed through an observation of masturbation sequences in three American films which we will loosely refer to as ‘independent’. ³ Mulholland Dr. (2001; dir. Lynch), Margot at the Wedding (2007; dir. Baumbach) ⁴ and Black Swan (2010; dir. Aronofsky) demonstrate how the act of masturbation underscores character traits and narrative tropes, simultaneously demonises autoeroticism and undermines foundational concepts of sexual development and sexual health. These examples are specifically chosen because they exemplify Rosewarne’s ‘unsexy displays’ conceived as exceptions to common representation within cinema internationally, within a distinct and limited recent timeframe – the decade between 2001 and 2010 – within similar industrial contexts, that also bear close links to representations of shame. As a comparison, we later observe the example of Steven Shainberg’s film Secretary (2002), which fits within the same temporal and industrial frameworks, and still associates masturbation with shame, yet can be considered ‘sexy’, or at least not ‘unsexy’, by contrast. These sequences are also selected as they have different narrative framings for their masturbation sequences, yet they all retain fundamentally similar functions regarding characterisations, with the first three examples sharing the narrative similarity of these characters failing to reach orgasm. Furthermore, these depictions represent masturbation as a parasexual construct, particularly when framed through female characters, and reinforce patriarchal anxieties surrounding female sexual autonomy.

The aim of this article, therefore, is to dissect these representations of female masturbation using formalist analysis to explain how the precise construction of these sequences, as well as their positioning within the films’ narrative and narrational contexts, inform characterisation, highlighting internalised and implicit shame. We use these outlines to identify the problematic nature of such complex depictions of female sexual autonomy. In order to demonstrate this, we begin by engaging in close, detailed discussion of the masturbation sequences in Mulholland Dr., Margot at the Wedding, and Black Swan. This is then followed by a discussion of theoretical and psychoanalytic discourses surrounding shame, which we then apply to an analysis of the relevant elements of form and narrative previously highlighted in the case studies. These analyses are then juxtaposed with a further discussion of the masturbation sequences in Secretary to show the range of representation within films of this period, and concluding with the continued use of problematic complexity in American independent cinema and its implications for how female sexuality is culturally perceived in America.

Getting a handle on masturbation

Although masturbation by both genders has been represented in fictional film in many countries, American cinema, as a dominant commercial force in the industry releases more distributionally widespread films, hence reaching larger audiences. It is this propensity towards wider consumption, and therefore more universal appeal that guides us towards American cinema for our case studies. However, mainstream Hollywood films tend to, with some exceptions, omit frank depictions of sexual activity. We therefore look to what could be termed Hollywood independent movies – films made by filmmakers who have achieved a certain amount of popularity in their own right, and often starring well-known actors; factors that contribute to wider consumption despite the lack of backing in production, but regularly aided by distributional support, from major American studios. This position of Hollywood independent production allows for strong global marketability without the frequent strictures of Hollywood studio demands, resulting in potentially internationally popular films that do include more explicit sexual representations. We therefore aim to use precise examples within a limited period of time, using this particular industrial context, which is useful in demonstrating depictions of individuated female sexual activity with fewer strictures regarding accessibility to broad audiences, which are typically associated with a more politically and socially conservative demographic.

We have selected four case studies that contain sequences wherein female masturbation is the central action, particularly used to inform the viewer in some manner regarding the character, or is narratively pertinent. However, one case study utilises two sequences of female masturbation. We will here provide brief descriptions of the sequences containing masturbation in our case studies and their contexts within each film.

The masturbation sequence in Mulholland Dr. is aesthetically revealed through gradual presentation, but its negative depiction is primarily based within the actor’s performance, supported by the narrative context. Providing a plot summary of Mulholland Dr. proves a difficult task, but a description of the main character will suffice. Betty (Naomi Watts) moves to Hollywood after winning a jitterbug dance competition, and subsequently meets and falls in love with another actress, Rita (Laura Elena Harring). Things become increasingly tense between them, and Betty, now called Diane, is eventually humiliated by Rita’s infidelity and eventual ending of their relationship. Within the narrative, the sequence follows a series of arguments between Rita and Diane, beginning with a thwarted attempt at sex where Rita tells Diane they ‘shouldn’t do this anymore.’ This is followed by a scene in which Rita openly responds sexually to a male film director (Justin Theroux) at a party in front of Diane, which leads to a sequence where Diane slams the door of her house in Rita’s face. The moment the door slams, there is a jump cut to the doorway from inside the apartment, without Diane standing there. This is where her masturbation sequence takes place, with the previous sequences appropriately contextualising her violent, emotional masturbation, and the following scenes extending from her apparent emotional and mental vulnerability. Allister Mactaggart describes this section of the film: ‘… there is a failed erotic encounter, which begins almost as a scene from soft-core pornography and then moves into her desperate, solitary masturbation scene.’ (2010: 111) Mactaggart’s description clearly highlights the way the sequence frames Diane’s masturbation, showing her as emotionally abject.

Lynch, in a discussion of the film’s focus on dreams, and the story as it focuses on Diane’s tragedy, says:

it’s the frustration, and all the negatives – jealousy, and just a whole bunch of things that are just misery and negative – that can cause you to do some things that aren’t so good, and when you do that, then you suffer the consequences, and then those consequences can grow like a bad dream. (Quoted in Barney 2001: 237)

In contrast to Mulholland Dr.’s dreamlike narrative, Margot at the Wedding clearly takes a penetrating look at the relationships within a dysfunctional family. Claire Perkins articulates the style Baumbach uses, noting that, while his earlier films use stylistic references to New Wave cinema, this is amongst his films that ‘eschew this type of stylistic allusion in favour of an observational style that attempts to put the audience directly into the scene.’ (Perkins, 2012: 60) The film centres on Margot, an emotionally aggressive and neurotic woman, who travels with her son to attend her sister’s wedding to a man who apparently has anger management problems. The narrative tension is primarily created through the way the characters react to each other, and the way these relationships are juxtaposed with scenes of the relationship dynamics of other characters. The masturbation sequence in Margot at the Wedding is included within a series of sequences showing the characters preparing for bed.

Margot’s (Nicole Kidman) sister, Pauline (Jennifer Jason Leigh), and Pauline’s fiancé Malcolm (Jack Black) are seen in the bedroom together. There is consistently tension between Malcolm and Pauline throughout the film: she is neurotic and vulnerable, he is brash and temperamental. Though they are often shown at odds and the audience has been informed immediately before this sequence that Pauline is marrying Malcolm because he got her pregnant, the viewer witnesses a very tender moment between the two of them. Malcolm, in his underwear weighs himself on the scale. Mostly naked, and concerned about his weight, his vulnerability becomes apparent, and Pauline, wearing pyjamas with the top opened, casually walks around the bedroom baring her breasts. Pauline is placed in a position of sexual comfort and confidence showing a distinct reversal of their normal public personalities. Throughout the sequence, their conversation is light and mirthful, which concludes with Malcolm standing over Pauline, saying in a half-joking manner, ‘Let’s fuck.’ Pauline then giggles as Malcolm leaps onto the bed. It is at this moment that the scene cuts suddenly to Margot masturbating. The juxtaposition of these two sequences highlights the loneliness and isolation, sexually if not personally, of Margot’s character.

Black Swan retains the jarring realist aesthetic that appears in Margot, while incorporating some of the narrative dream logic of Mulholland Dr. Nina (Natalie Portman), a socially withdrawn, but ambitious ballerina, is the central character of Black Swan. Living with her overbearing mother (Barbara Hershey), who herself failed in her attempt to become a professional ballerina, Nina dances for a major company, who is preparing for a production of Pytor Tchaikovsky’s 1876 ballet, Swan Lake. Nina successfully gets the part of the White Swan and the Black Swan, and through her rigorous attempts at embodying the role of the Black Swan, discovers more about her talent, and sexuality, while losing her grip on her own self-identity and reality as a whole. Black Swan contains two masturbation sequences, both utilising different expressions of shame, but to similar ends.

Nina’s mother discovers a wound forming on Nina’s shoulder. She then forces Nina into the bathroom, wearing only panties, and forcibly cuts Nina’s fingernails, which she believes to be the culprit as a result of compulsive scratching as a child. The following morning, Nina awakes, and begins to masturbate. As the intensity of the action increases, she almost approaches orgasm until she suddenly discovers her mother sitting, asleep, right next to her bed.

The second sequence occurs as Nina takes a bath. She is again apparently tense, and the short duration implies that she does not bring herself to orgasm. Drops of blood are seen falling on the surface of the water, and when Nina opens her eyes, she sees herself above the water looking down. This startles her and she sits up quickly in the bath.

The aesthetic minutiae of these sequences are far from irrelevant. Construction informs understanding of the narrative and dimensionalises these characters. And when theories of shame are closely observed and placed alongside readings that the construction of these sequences invite, it can be seen that internalised shame is a distinctive character trait amongst all of these characters; a trait which masturbation is instrumental in communicating.

Poring over shame – theories and applications

What is significant about these case studies in particular is that, while they vary in narrative context, they function similarly, and centrally, in the development of the three characters with a fundamental common link with their failure to reach orgasm. Each character shares similar traits, which the masturbation sequences highlight, and the precise locations of the sequences in the development of the narratives draw particular attention to this, linking narrative continuity in very specific ways. But to best understand this we must first address theories of shame before applying shame as a concept to an analysis of these films.

For the purposes of this analysis, it is significant to explore how shame, as a psychoanalytic concept, affects one’s emotions, in turn, resulting in behavioural manifestations, which can be analysed through character traits. Masturbation is an action that has much potential to highlight solitude and loneliness, elements that, in some ways, can be related to social anxiety, which is, according to Paul Gilbert, linked to shame (1998: 6). In Gilbert’s overview of discourses surrounding shame, he pinpoints the emotions present within a discussion of shame and negative affect. The primary negative emotion relative to shame, according to Gilbert, is anxiety, which he identifies as ‘central to the shame experience, and it is difficult to consider shame without it’ (1998). Gilbert’s overview stresses that, from anxiety, further shame-related emotions emerge, including anger, humiliation, disgust, indignity, and more complex combinations thereof (1998: 7–14). These, however, are direct approaches to shame, and the feelings immediately derived from a sense of shame. While these prove useful, Andrew P Morisson’s analysis of shame with regards to the conscious, subconscious, rejection and suppression is more apt with respect to character analysis within fiction.

The key to Morisson’s analysis is that shame ‘reflects passivity, a failure or defect of the whole self’ (1989: 5, original emphasis). He elaborates, after discussing the difficulty that shame presents in a clinical context due to the fact that it induces concealment:

Patients recoil from facing their shame – and the failures, senses of defect, inferiority, and passivity that engender it. Patients often express, instead, defences against, and displaced manifestations of, shame – certain depressions, mania, rage, envy, and contempt. (Morisson, 1989).

Elspeth Probyn identifies the reflexive component of shame. She writes, ‘Shame is deeply related not only to how others think about us but also to how we think about ourselves’ (2005: 45). So while narcissism may not be linked to shame directly, shame can come to be a component, sometimes a central social component of how shame is psychologically framed. This is significant to Probyn who is interested in sociological analysis as well as ‘to tell the psychosomatic body’s stories’ (2005: 41)

Individually, each film addresses shame in its own way. However, there are significant points of similarity that need to be addressed as well. Therefore, we will begin by looking at how elements of the films are representative of shame individually, and move on to observe the points of intersection.

In Mulholland Dr., all of the sequences discussed create a continuum, compounding Diane’s humiliation by Rita. This immediate juxtaposition between a sequence of masturbation and a sequence of humiliation and indignity, which is directly acknowledged by Gilbert, is very suggestive in terms of linking self-stimulation to shame.

The performance of Naomi Watts as Diane in the sequence depicting masturbation in Mulholland Dr. becomes the vehicle for the uncomfortable effect this sequence creates. Although the previous sequence contextualises this as a step in Diane’s increased humiliation, Watts’s performance explicates this humiliation ranging from dejected sadness to desperate anger, caused by the way she was treated by Rita, but directing these negative emotions at her own genitals. It is very significant that Diane’s emotional state following the previous sequence is linked to humiliation, indignity, and eventually anger, per Gilbert’s analysis of the negative emotional effects of shame. In this context, shame appears to be cyclical – the shame of her rejection influences the emotional condition under which she masturbates, causing resonances of further shame, which in turn feeds her shame from rejection. However, her apparent psychological problems during masturbation, which are exemplified as she is increasingly unhinged throughout the remainder of the film, can be seen as a direct application of Morrison’s concept of shame, and the mania that accompanies it.

Further, Diane’s failed relationship and her role as victim become the catalyst for this representation of Diane as weak and pathetic evinced through her desperate attempt at self pleasure, in essence trying to re-create, by herself, the sexual gratification provided by Rita. It is apparent, however, that she is having difficulty fulfilling herself sexually. The previous sequences reveal that she has not fulfilled Rita’s needs either, further throwing Diane’s sexual identity into crisis. Ultimately, these implications engendered through this masturbation sequence create a difficult and unpleasant sequence to view, removing the eroticism from the act. Masturbation becomes difficult and complex, but certainly not arousing.

In Margot at the Wedding, the troubled look on Margot’s face at the end of the sequence is a point of interest. Observing this sequence, it appears that this look indicates she has failed to bring herself to climax and is disappointed. This makes her intensified breathing and moaning during masturbation an indication of greater effort to bring herself to orgasm and simultaneous frustration (sexual and emotional). This makes Margot appear sexually distracted, when considered alongside her relationship with the other characters, particularly her sister and her son (Zane Pais). This dimensionalises Perkins’ understanding of the film as depicting ‘toxic’ patterns of influence between spouses, parents and children, and siblings’ (Perkins, 2012: 12), creating a tension between comparative readings of these relationships and the levels of interaction that occur between the characters. This reading of Margot’s failure to climax is also likely to elicit pity within the viewer. The fact that she appears unable to bring herself to orgasm can be seen as a pivotal point in her cycle of interpersonal interaction: she cannot climax because of the stress and distraction she experiences in interacting with others, but her interactions are intensified by her extreme sexual frustration resulting from the lack of orgasmic release.

Furthermore, Margot is primarily characterised by her narcissism (significant when considering Probyn’s work), and dysfunction in social integration; that her only sexual scene be one depicting her autoeroticism is key in reflecting her egocentrism within a sexual paradigm. This is further informed by the preceding scene, where Malcolm and Pauline converse about Margot, before inciting sexual congress. Considering the consistent tension between the couple in the film, Pauline’s neurotic vulnerability seemingly incongruent with Malcolm’s brash temperamentality, the scene is tenderly framed by the quotidian regime demonstrated as they get ready for bed, and the environmental amenity and security of the bedroom. Throughout the film, Margot is portrayed as extremely passive-aggressive; in terms of Morisson’s displaced manifestations of shame, she frequently demonstrates contempt and envy, particularly with regards to Pauline’s romantic relationship, and it has been revealed that Margot’s personal romantic relationships are largely unsuccessful. Margot demonstrates a certain amount of satisfaction at the failures occurring in Pauline and Malcolm’s relationship. The depiction of Margot’s masturbation, particularly when placed alongside the sequence depicting casual and comfortable interaction between Pauline and Malcolm, highlights Margot’s potential failure at successfully pleasing her former partner, and, in fact, pleasing herself, presenting a defect in her own sexual expression, in a similar way to Mulholland Dr. Additionally, Margot fits Morrison’s model of defences against defect through her consistent displays of ‘rage, envy, and contempt.’

Black Swan is particularly fascinating as it is the only film we have highlighted that comes close to addressing the direct, immediate shame engendered through masturbation, with regards to the first sequence. With Nina discovering her mother is present as she nears orgasm, despite the fact that her mother is asleep, Gilbert’s negative emotional affect analysis of shame becomes particularly useful. Natalie Portman, through her performance, provides Nina with facial expressions, after the initial reaction of shock, which clearly combine elements of humiliation and indignity. Nina, as, admittedly, most people would be, is obviously unsettled by her mother’s presence, and through this scenario, Aronofsky creates a sequence that directly links masturbation to shame within Nina’s character, as well as to shame with respect to her mother.

Because of her mother’s overbearing and obsessive nature towards her potential accomplishments as a ballerina, Nina is placed into isolation from her peers under the guise of commitment to her profession. Through this, Nina demonstrates elements of social anxiety, again, something Gilbert closely links to shame, particularly with her inability to successfully relate to others. The second sequence, though she is not discovered, ends either with a weak orgasm or without reaching orgasm; this is not entirely clear. She is not provided with an impetus, as before, to express shame, however Nina does immediately see herself hovering over the water; as seeing oneself without the aid of mirrors or photographic equipment is physically impossible, this type of hallucinatory seeing can be classified as a mania, as addressed by Morisson. Throughout the course of the film, her isolation, her inability to succeed in social terms, and her inability to fully sexually please herself are symptomatic of her low self-esteem, and passive representations of shame, that begin to surface largely at times when she is in the process of sexual self-discovery. This is further addressed through her sexual encounter with Lily (Mila Kunis), which is tenuously placed within the narrative as it could be either real or imagined by Nina, resulting in the possibility of further exploration of the character’s psyche.

Furthermore, in Black Swan, the setting of her childhood room for the masturbatory scene is overtly infantilised by the inclusion of stereotypical pre-pubescent material – cuddly toys, floral imagery and a colour scheme abundant in pink and white. This could be said to be representative of Nina’s sexual immaturity and inexperience, but it is also strongly evocative of current position of maternal influence in Nina’s life. Her mother’s intense preoccupation with Nina’s life extends not only to her professional life, but personal hygiene, with an emphasised absence of privacy in Nina’s adult life in public and domestically. This scene is preceded by two sequential critical scenes: the night of the fundraising gala announcing Nina as the new prima ballerina, and Nina being undressed and physically inspected by her mother upon her return home. At the conclusion of the gala, Nina is accused by the displaced prima, Beth (Winona Ryder), of securing the role by sexually proffering herself to Thomas (Vincent Cassel): ‘How did you get this role…he always said you were such a frigid little girl… did you suck his cock?… you fucking whore!’. She is then shortly afterwards issued a ‘homework’ assignment by Thomas: ‘Go home, and touch yourself’ – a conversation which he justifies is a necessary dialogue to developing Nina’s role.

This scene emphasises shame, in concurrence with the masturbatory scene, by discussion of Nina’s perceived sexual dysfunction by Beth’s accusation of Nina being a ‘frigid little girl’, which also infantilises the concept of her sexuality, by denouncing her a ‘little girl’, uncomfortably evoked in her bedroom design; Nina later impulsively destroys items evocative of this status and maternal influence, by destroying her toys and breaking her music box. Nina’s interruption to an assumed approach to climax is also indicative of a failure to fulfil Thomas’s instruction; by his emphasis on how integral her sexuality is to emulating the Black Swan, it becomes relevant to her idea of perfectionist commitment in her performative mimesis, thus translating to the performativity of the masturbatory act. This also compounds the idea of sexual dysfunction, subconsciously, in that her interruption to climax is not indicative of an inability to achieve gratification, but by feature as obstruction, it lends to an internal framing relative to her perceived nature as ‘frigid’.

The primary distinction between internarrative functions of the masturbatory scenes in Black Swan, Mulholland Dr. and Margot at the Wedding lie in diegetic structure. Margot at the Wedding is firmly situated within a realistic diegetic prism, and articulates verisimilitude in depiction of character and interpersonal dynamic, whereas Black Swan and Mulholland Dr. accentuate the fissure and deterioration of psychological identity through narrative and sensory distortion of a posited subjective reality. The masturbatory scenes featuring Betty/Diane and Nina visually integrate the notion of their individual sexual solipsism and fragmentation; Lynch achieves this through transit of camera perspective, whereas Aranofsky achieves hallucinatory depiction through use of ‘fluid’ mediums of water and mirrors, especially in the second masturbatory scene in the bath where submersion and reflection are utilised to suggest Nina’s delusional perception of stimuli in the absence of such. This correlates with Gilbert’s discussion of mania, and the aforementioned concept of frigidity as introduced in Black Swan opens an area of character analysis which further ties together these theories of shame.

As pointed out, the inability of the characters to climax in both Mulholland Dr. and Margot at the Wedding suggests a potential for sexual ineffectuality, which, in turn, highlights the fact that they are not romantically involved with another person. Diane and Margot have recently split with their significant others, while Nina has seemingly never been in a relationship and lacks sexual experience. The fact that they are alone and seem to try to replicate sexual pleasure manually, in some cases desperately, guides the viewer to the conclusion that they are lonely and isolated, inciting pity in the viewer, and attributing to the characters a sense of abjectness.

While social anxiety isn’t wholly apparent, social awkwardness is present within each of the characters. During a dinner party shown earlier and on the film set before she and Rita break up, Diane can be seen trying uncomfortably to join in the ongoing conversations, but she seems consistently ill at ease. Margot repeatedly manages to make conversations uncomfortable through her cutting comments and overt judgementalism. Nina, being sheltered by her mother and isolated due to the extent of her ambitiousness, has difficulty engaging socially with the other characters in the narrative. Gilbert’s analysis as addressed supports our argument that these are all linked to an expression of psychological manifestations of shame.

Additionally, the struggle to reach climax, and the seeming desperation with which the characters infuse their efforts to do so, suggest emotional complexity and conscious distraction. This is obvious with Diane in Mulholland Dr. as her masturbation is preceded by a highly emotional break up with Rita. Until the first masturbation sequence, Nina’s environment is consistently developed as steeped in stress, from her ambitious determination to excel in ballet to her volatile relationship with her overbearing mother, and therefore these stresses culminate in these sequences where she is too distracted to orgasm despite her efforts, or even too distracted to fully commit to her masturbatory attempts, such as in the bath. Margot’s development, however, is even more subtle. Though she is depicted as uptight, tense, and passive-aggressive, her stress isn’t overt, nor is it explicated. Her overall personality suggests this, and her inability to pleasure herself acts as further evidence of her preoccupation with other elements in her life.

While these dramatic character pieces within American independent cinema depict masturbation sequences with more than a little discomfort, these films do not always portray the act negatively. The next case study, Secretary, is different in that these masturbation sequences appear, on the surface and out of narrative context, to be positive and enjoyable. However, narrative contexts do alter this reading.

Secretary and problematic representations

As a counterpoint to these explications of shame related to masturbation, Secretary is an example of a film in a similar industrial context that includes sequences of female masturbation with different framings, but contextually similar results. The sadomasochistic romantic relationship between a secretary and her boss is the basic premise of the film Secretary. Through its very subject matter, its aim is to directly address and normalise paraphilia and socially deemed ‘transgressive’ sexual behaviour. Different aspects of this BDSM relationship are represented throughout the course of the film, and two sequences of masturbation, centring on the secretary, Lee (Maggie Gyllenhaal), primarily attempt to express her own desire and inclination, not only to BDSM, but also specifically to her boss, Edward (James Spader).

The first masturbation sequence begins with Lee lying in bed wearing a robe, smoking a cigarette, reading an issue of Cosmopolitan magazine. Lee’s voice is heard in voice-over, relating the information in the article: ‘Cosmo’s advice for “getting your man to share his feelings more intimately” is to first try some “breezy humour”’ At this, Lee sits up, lays down the magazine, stubs out her cigarette and lays, stomach down, on the bed, places both hands between her legs, and looks at the picture of her boyfriend Peter (Jeremy Davies) before closing her eyes. As she stimulates herself, the sequence intercuts with fantasy imagery, meant to correlate with her imagination at various points. Initially, the fantasy is of Edward, standing up from behind his desk, and approaching Lee in a colourful field, she is standing just inside a large flower, and Edward gently embraces her. There is a cut to Lee in the bedroom, and she looks at the picture of Peter again. This then cuts to the same field, this time Peter and Lee lay atop two clothes dryers awkwardly manoeuvring around each other in an attempt to kiss. In frustration, Lee turns the picture down so she can no longer see Peter’s photograph, turns onto her back, and returns to fantasising about Edward. In this fantasy, the flowers from the field frame the image, but the shot is lit with a deep purple light. Lee is poised on all fours in sharp focus on top of Edward’s desk. He sits behind her in shadow and out of focus. The camera tracks in to Lee until her face is in close up, and she says ‘I’m your secretary.’ This is intercut with Lee’s face in close up, lying on her back in bed, moaning and bringing herself to orgasm. As she does this, she begins to recite the commands Edward gave her for her supper: ‘Just one scoop of creamed potatoes, one slice of butter, and four peas…’ Lee brings herself to orgasm as the shot dissolves to the following sequence in the office, during which, Edward tries to ignore her attempts to engage in sub/dom activity, leaving Lee feeling confused and rejected. This is followed by Lee’s discovery that her father has checked himself into rehab and in an effort to connect with Edward, goes to his house but fails to express herself with regards to her feelings towards him.

The second sequence occurs immediately after Lee successfully manages to entice Edward into ejaculating on her back. He then tries to clean his trousers as Lee goes to the toilet to clean her back. She then pulls up her skirt, and begins to touch herself, first over, then inside her underwear. As she does, Lee says aloud, ‘Cock. Place your prick in my mouth. Screw me.’ Her breathing and moaning get louder as she places her hand in her shirt and begins to rub her breast. This is intercut with shots of Edward cleaning the semen stains off of his trousers, and a woman in the next stall listening to Lee’s breathing and talking.

The sequence concludes with Lee smiling after her orgasm, but as she leaves the bathroom, there is a cut to Edward coming out of his office and destroying all of the picture frames containing memoranda with mistakes, each of which is indicative of an incitement to S/M activity between Edward and Lee. Lee then goes to lunch listening to an instructive tape on her walkman about engaging in healthy sub/dom activity, while Edward burns photographs of his secretaries, Lee’s picture dominant in the frame, and then unsuccessfully types an apology letter indicating that he is himself ashamed of his sexual inclinations. He throws the letter away, and instead, fires Lee when she returns from lunch, resulting in her own humiliation.

As is seen, though the masturbation sequences are framed in a positive, liberating manner, they immediately precede points of severe declination, or at least complication, in either Lee’s life or Lee and Edward’s relationship. Although there is no direct link in terms of a cause/effect–masturbation/humiliation interconnection, the fact that the sequences precede such events suggests that there is an implicit connection between them. This is significant when viewed in light of the fact that depictions of BDSM activities and other transgressive sexual encounters are framed positively and isolated within the narrative, without negative consequences or events following. Humiliation, as discussed by Gilbert may be a direct expression of shame, and though the shame is not a result of masturbation, masturbation and shame are juxtaposed so closely together that it becomes difficult to fully separate them, especially within the narrative progression and development within Secretary. To also utilise Morisson (1989), these periods of humiliation (shame) also result in periods of depression, which is an expression of Lee’s own passivity, hence tying these periods more closely to shame. A problem arises in relation to the previously discussed films, as Lee manages to, on all occasions, bring herself to orgasm. Not only does shame not factor into the action directly, particularly within the scope of Lee’s emotional and psychological makeup, but neither does it prevent her ability to climax. However, as shown, these sequences are narratively, thematically, and cinematically linked to Edward’s shame towards the behaviours he finds sexually satisfying.

Apart from shame, but with regards to representations of autoeroticism, Secretary creates a further difficulty. Margot D. Weiss writes that films such as Secretary ‘Allow the mainstream audience to flirt with danger and excitement but ultimately reinforce boundaries between protected and privileged normal sexuality and policed and pathological not normal sexuality’ (2006: 105). Weiss further states that ‘the film’s happy ending redeemed BDSM by refolding it back into normal constructions of sexuality’ (2006: 115). Therefore, Secretary and films of its like as identified by Weiss, acknowledge constructs of parasexuality, and, as Weiss stated, attempt to assimilate them into normalised sexual models. The difficulties particularly arise when masturbation is included within these transgressive acts that need to be normalised when, as has been demonstrated, it is already considered a common pleasure.

Continued negative representation and moving past transgression

Ultimately, cinematic representations of sexuality are fluid and malleable, emblematic of views held by a text’s authors, cultural conceptions, or both. However, this is difficult to reconcile within representations of masturbation, because the more or less universal commonality of engaging in autoeroticism along with well-publicised psychological research and discussion in mainstream periodicals as highlighted through the work of Barbara Seaman and Eleanor Stephens (see Segal, 1994: 37–38), demonstrates the general unlikelihood of appropriating negative feelings towards masturbation. However, in terms of Hollywood independent cinema over the last decade or so, representations of masturbation still become closely linked, either directly or indirectly, to representations of shame.

Even the comparatively recent film Stoker (2013; dir. Park Chan-Wook) contains a female masturbation sequence that establishes shame, before removing it and linking the act to deviancy and extreme transgression. The protagonist, India, following a sexual assault, which ends in her uncle arriving and murdering the perpetrator, is seen in the shower, cleaning the dirt off of her from burying the body in the woods. Her face is initially seen, and she seems to be crying over experiencing violent death firsthand. However, the camera tilts down, to show that she is masturbating, thereby linking autoerotism with the shame she feels over her arousal from violence. Once she reaches orgasm, India is shown smiling and laughing, which can be interpreted as shame expressed through mania, or, without the factor of shame, the film still links masturbation to sexual transgression through not only sexual arousal at violence, but also the incestuous feelings India experiences for her uncle. In either case, masturbation appears as a vehicle of negative psychological and/or social expression.

Despite acknowledgement of universality, is masturbation a subject that is still deemed transgressive in terms of representation and reception? There are two possible answers to this. It is possible that, despite general open acceptance, masturbation is a subject still steeped in deep-seated feelings of guilt and shame, and fictional representations thereof manage to tap into this lingering Victorian sensibility, generating a sense of truth and acknowledging the disconnect between cultural knowledge and individual sensibility. However, it could also be considered that Hollywood independent films, appropriating certain elements of narrative expectation (with Mulholland Dr. taking this to unusual extremes), must utilise any visual representation to create increased tension in terms of narrative development, or complexity in terms of character development. We would argue that it is a combination of the two.

Arguably, when using masturbation within narratives that still create expectations based on an awareness of formulaic expressions while removed from strict Hollywood generic formulas, it must be used in a way to further engage and intrigue the viewer. However, the fact that masturbation is used in order to create a complex negative tension, ultimately being rendered as expressions of shame, as opposed to a tension-reliever (narrative vs. physical), old guilt and shame – ridden sensibilities towards masturbation are both exposed and reinforced, and implicitly suggesting that it is an act of sexual transgression.

The implications for public and cultural conceptions of female sexual autonomy are predictable. Furthermore, each film in some way reinforces the need for penis/vagina interface through these sequences: Diane is spurned by her former lover who now appears to be happily in a heterosexual relationship in Mulholland Dr., Margot appears lonely in contrast to her sister’s joyful heterosexual sexual interaction in Margot at the Wedding, Nina’s sexual confusion and taunting by a homosexual love interest foregrounds her desire for an admittedly abusive man in Black Swan, and Lee’s successful masturbation is done through fantasising about the perfect man in Secretary. Therefore, American independent cinema, as an industry less bound to the strict demands of palatability for wide, mainstream audiences, still retains a strong implicitly conservative and patriarchal attitude, both condemning and fearful, towards women taking their sexual pleasure into their own hands.