Individual,premigration and postsettlement factors,and academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds: A systematic review and model

Abstract

We have limited understanding of the precursors of academic achievement in resettled adolescents from refugee backgrounds. To date, no clear model has been developed to conceptualise the academic trajectories of adolescents from refugee backgrounds at postsettlement. The current review had two aims. First, to propose an integrated adaptive model to conceptualise the impact of individual, premigration, and postsettlement factors on academic achievement at postsettlement; and second, to critically examine the literature on factors that predict academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds in relation to the proposed model and highlight issues deserving future exploration. Following the protocol of a systematic literature review, 13 studies were identified for full-text review. Gender, ethnicity, English proficiency, psychological distress, premigration trauma, premigration loss, postsettlement social support, and postsettlement school connectedness, were found to predict academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds.

Keywords

academic achievement academic predictors model refugee adolescents review

Introduction

With approximately 1.6 million adolescents under the responsibility of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees in 2012 (UNHCR, 2012) it is critical to understand the role of factors that predict academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds in order to predict and promote their integration into the country of resettlement (Australian Curriculum, Assessment, and Reporting Authority [ACARA], 2012; Olliff, 2010). The current review seeks to achieve two aims.¹ The first is to propose an integrative model to better understand the processes involved in postsettlement development and psychosocial adjustment of adolescents that impact their academic achievement at postsettlement; and second, to critically evaluate the literature on factors that predict academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds in relation to the proposed model.

In reviewing the literature on academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds, it is evident that many of the studies are either descriptive (e.g., Brown, Miller, & Mitchell, 2006; Davies, 2008; Kanu, 2008) or explain single-factor relationships (e.g., Rousseau & Drapeau, 2000; Rousseau, Drapeau, & Corin, 1996). There are few studies which are based upon a holistic model of adolescence development and which take into account the often chaotic experiences and levels of adversity experienced by adolescents seeking refuge. There is a need, therefore, prior to reviewing the literature, to formulate a model that has the potential to provide a framework to conceptualise the academic development of adolescents from refugee backgrounds.

An integrative bio-ecological adaptive model

The bio-ecological theory of human development formulated by Bronfenbrenner (1977, 2005) proposes that human development is the result of reciprocal interactions between people's evolving characteristics and the contexts in which they live. The environment is conceptualised as a system of five nested structures operating both independently/internally and in relation to one another.

Drawing from Bronfenbrenner's model (1977, 2005), the educational needs and barriers for adolescents from refugee backgrounds who resettled from Africa to Manitoba was investigated by Kanu (2008). Findings suggested that multiple complex factors interact to create obstacles to academic achievement and social integration for adolescents from refugee backgrounds. Obstacles were identified as a lack of academic support at home, experience of loss, differing academic expectations between the home culture and host culture, acculturative stress, challenges with academic knowledge and skills as a result of disrupted schooling or differing standards, and limited proficiency in the dominant language in the host country. Kanu's findings have been supported by researchers working with adolescents from refugee backgrounds (Foundation House, 2004; Hamilton & Moore, 2004).

The adaptation and development after persecution and trauma (ADAPT) model postulates that the central psychosocial domains that are undermined by stressors experienced at premigration and during migration by people from refugee backgrounds comprise the following: security and safety, interpersonal bonds and networks within and between the family, kinship groups and contexts of community and society, justice and protection from abuse, identities and roles assumed at postsettlement, and institutions including religious and political affiliations (Silove, 1999). This model recognises the need for a multilevel approach to psychosocial interventions that include the person, the family, and the whole community, and stresses the importance of mending ruptures to these damaged systems to facilitate recovery and adaptation for people from refugee backgrounds at postsettlement.

We propose an integrated bio-ecological adaptive model (BEAM; see Figure 1) that draws upon Bronfenbrenner's (1977, 2005) bio-ecological theory and Silove's (1999) ADAPT framework. The study of predictors of academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds has been problematic. One of the reasons for this gap in research is that there is no clear model conceptualising the academic trajectory of adolescents from refugee backgrounds. Adolescents from refugee backgrounds arrive in the country of resettlement with unique characteristics and bio-psychological resources, such as age, gender, ethnicity, level of English proficiency, cognitive functioning, and level of psychological distress. The development of adolescents from refugee backgrounds is dependent on complex reciprocal interactions between the active adolescent and various systems, such as premigration trauma and experience of loss in the chronosystem, and postsettlement psychosocial factors comprising social support and school connectedness in the microsystem. These systemic interactions can serve to mend the psychosocial ruptures in the systems experienced at premigration and at migration, proposed to impact the academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds at postsettlement.

Figure 1.

The integrated bio-ecological adaptive model (BEAM).

From the perspective of the proposed model, the interactions between various microsystems of adolescents from refugee backgrounds in the mesosystem facilitate the mending of stressors and ruptures in interpersonal bonds as a result of resettlement. Through these interactions, adolescents from refugee backgrounds understand, negotiate, and integrate identities and roles expected by the various microsystems. Programs and regulations established by school policies in the exosystem provide a sense of security and safety for adolescents from refugee backgrounds, which may buffer psychosocial stressors experienced by refugees at resettlement. Through the development of education and public policies by institutions such as government bodies and jurisdiction systems in the macrosystem, the academic potential of adolescents from refugee backgrounds may be greatly enhanced. Government bodies may facilitate the reestablishment of religious and cultural institutions with which adolescents from refugee backgrounds are affiliated so that cultural networks may be established to enhance social coherence and adjustment at postsettlement. Past, present, and future sociohistorical events and conditions experienced throughout the life course of adolescents from refugee backgrounds may impact the way in which adolescents manage ruptures and psychosocial stressors.

In summary, the bio-ecological adaptive model proposes that mending and enhancing interpersonal bonds and wider networks help adolescents from refugee backgrounds in recovering from ruptured systems experienced prior to resettlement, further strengthening interactions between adolescents and various environmental systems at postsettlement. In turn, strengthened relations enhance personal development, including forging adaptive identities and roles, and achieving optimal academic potential.

Method

The method followed the protocol of a systematised literature review. A literature search was completed using online databases (ERIC, ProQuest Databases, PsycINFO, and ScienceDirect) and by reviewing the references lists of articles identified. To minimise publication bias, searches were also conducted using an Internet search engine (Google Scholar). The four databases chosen were considered most relevant to the research question and likely to yield the highest number of relevant papers. Search terms comprised (refugee or refugee adolescen* or refugee youth AND academic achievement or academic success or academic performance) AND age OR sex or gender OR ethnicity or race or culture OR English proficiency or English level or English educat* OR cognitive functioning or cognitive abilit* OR psychological distress or psychological problem* OR trauma* or violen* or war or abus* or death or die* or dying OR loss or disconnect* or separat* OR social support or family support or peer support or teacher support OR school connect* or “sense of belonging.” Following screening of titles and abstracts, 150 studies were identified for full-text review, of which 13 studies met the inclusion criteria.

The inclusion criteria for the review were, (a) published in a peer-reviewed journal or published in a book; (b) written in English; (c) participants aged 11 to 25 years, or enrolled in high schools, or termed “adolescents”; and (d) participants were from refugee backgrounds. No date limitation was applied. This review was not designed to provide an exhaustive review of the literature.

Results

Following screening of titles and abstracts, 150 studies were identified for full-text review, of which 13 studies met the inclusion criteria. Sample sizes ranged from very small (N = 3) to large (N = 1,348). In keeping with the inclusion criteria, all studies were published in a peer-reviewed journal and written in English. Participants in all studies were aged 11 to 25 years, enrolled in high schools, or termed “adolescents,” and were from refugee backgrounds. There was variability in the findings associated with the prediction of academic achievement by individual, premigration, and postsettlement factors reported. Table 1 summarises the results.

Table 1.

Details of studies included in systematised review

Reference	Country where research was conducted	Sample	Country of origin of sample	Predictive variables analysed for the purpose of the current review	Design	Instrument	Main findings (of predictive variables analysed)	Limitations
Bates, Baird, Johnson, and Lee (2005)	United States	N = 33, mean age not given, participants were termed “adolescents,” 28 males, 5 females.	Sudan.	English proficiency.	Mixed methods	Focus groups, individual interviews.	Limited English proficiency contributed to greater academic difficulties.	Few females in the study, therefore interpretations may not be generalisable to the wider population.
Beiser (1999)	Canada	N = 1348 adolescents in the first wave in 1981, 1,173 in the second wave in 1983, and 660 in the third wave in 1991.		Psychological distress.	Qualitative study	Case studies.	Adolescents from refugee backgrounds who were originally from Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia experienced emotional and psychological difficulties at postsettlement in Canada and these problems negatively impacted their school performance.	Ethnic origin, type of sponsorship, arrival arrangements not provided in the study.
Berthold (2000)	Western United States	N = 144, mean age 16.35, age range 14–20, males and females equally represented.	Khmer.	Premigration trauma.	Cross-sectional survey approach	HTQ, modified version of SCECV, LA PTSD Index, CES-DC, PBRS, PSS-Fa and PSS-Fr; OCIS, interviews.	Adolescents with a greater lifetime exposure to trauma experiences had significantly higher PTSD scores, behaviour problems, and lower academic achievement.
Brown et al. (2006)	Melbourne, Australia	N = 8, age range 17–20.	Africa (Sudan, Kenya).	Postsettlement social support, postsettlement school connectedness.	Qualitative study	Individual interviews, focus groups.	Having social support and having a sense of belonging to the school has been suggested to be critical to academic development.
Davies (2008)	New York City, United States	N = 5, age range 16–21, 3 males, 2 females.	Sierra Leone.	Postsettlement social support.	Qualitative study	Case study.	Having a caring school environment is critical in buffering the effects of premigration trauma, hence positively impacting on postsettlement learning and achievement.
Derwing, DeCorby, Ichikawa, and Jamieson (1999)	Alberta, Canada	N = 556 high school students of immigrant and refugee backgrounds, mean age not given.		English proficiency.	Mixed methods	School records, qualitative interviews.	Only 40% of participants from refugee backgrounds received a diploma on completing high school, 46% did not complete high school at all, and 14% completed with insufficient credits to graduate from high school.
Ima and Rumbaut (1989)	United States	N = 239, grades 7–12.	Vietnam, Hmong, Khmer, Laos.	Ethnicity.	Cross-sectional study	GPA, CTBS, standardised achievement test scores.	Adolescents from Vietnam had better academic achievement compared to adolescents from Hmong, Khmer, and Laos.
Kanu, 2008	Manitoba, Canada	N = 40, age range 17–24, 20 males, 20 females.	Ethiopia, Sudan, Sierra Leone, Somalia.	English proficiency, premigration loss experience, postsettlement social support.	Qualitative study	Focus groups, school and classroom observations, individual interviews.	Limited English proficiency, separation from family, and lack of academic support at home posed academic challenges for the participants.	Included only war-affected adolescents from Africa in 1 Canadian province, Manitoba, therefore the findings may not be generalisable to the wider population.
Rousseau and Drapeau (2000)	Canada	N = 152, mean age of Central Americans 14.4, mean age of Cambodians 13.7, 90 males, 62 females.	Central America (Honduras, Guatemala, El Salvador), Cambodia.	Ethnicity, gender.	Mixed methods	Summation of participants' grade scores.	Cambodian females found to fail less often at school when compared to Central American females or males. In general, Cambodians failed less often compared to Central Americans.	Relatively small sample. The 2 groups had different trauma histories which may have affected their scholastic achievement.
Rousseau et al. (1996)		N = 156, mean age 10.6, 88 males, 68 females.	Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Vietnam), Central America (Honduras, Guatemala, El Salvador).	Psychological distress.	Cross-sectional quantitative study	Child Behaviour Checklist (CBCL) completed by parents, learning difficulties identified by school authorities, and academic achievement through school reports.	Emotional and psychological problems positively associated with learning difficulties at school.	Indicators of learning difficulties were not robust enough to reduce variability in interschool and interteacher ratings of learning difficulties.
Shakya et al. (2012)	Canada	N = 57, age range 16–24, 29 males, 28 females.	Afghanistan, Burma, Sudan.	English proficiency.	Qualitative study	Focus groups and interviews.	Poor English proficiency led to difficulties in learning and interaction in the school, which negatively influenced their academic experience.
Walker-Dalhouse and Dalhouse (2009)	United States	N = 3 families with children in their adolescence, 1 male, 1 female.	South Sudan.	Postsettlement social support.	Qualitative study	Interviews.	Having support from teachers and parents is essential for academic proficiency.
Wilkinson (2002)	Alberta, Canada	N = 91, age range 15–21 years, 50 males, 41 females.	El Salvador, Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iraq, Vietnam, Somalia, Guatemala, Pakistan.	Ethnicity, gender, and age.	Qualitative study	Structured interviews.	Ethnicity found to be a significant predictor of educational performance. Age and gender were found to have nonsignificant effects on educational performance.

Note. GPA = grade point average; CTBS = Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills; HTQ = Harvard Trauma Questionnaire (Mollica et al., 1992); SCECV = “Survey of Children's Exposure to Community Violence” (Richters & Saltzman, 1990); LA PTSD Index = Los Angeles Posttraumatic Stress Index (King, King, Leskin, & Foy, 1995); CES-DC = Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale for Children (Faulstich, Carey, Ruggiero, Enyart, & Gresham, 1986); PBRS = Personal Risk Behaviors Scale (Aoki, Zane, Jang, & Ho, 1995); PSS-Fa and PSS-Fr = Perceived Social Support From Family Scale and Perceived Social Support From Friends Scale (Procidano & Heller, 1983); OCIS = Orthogonal Cultural Identification Scale (Oetting & Beauvais, 1991); WTSS = War Trauma Screening Scale (Layne, Stuvland, Saltzman, Djapo, & Pynoos, 1999); PSSM = Psychological Sense of School Membership Scale (Goodenow, 1993); PTSD-I – UCLA = Post Traumatic Stress Disorder Index for the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual Fourth Edition, University of California, Los Angeles (Rodriguez, Steinberg, & Pynoos, 1998); DSRS = Depression Self-Rating Scale (Birleson, 1981); MSPSE = Multidimensional Scales of Perceived Self-Efficacy (Bandura, 1990).

Discussion

The discussion comprises a review of studies that met our inclusion criteria. However, we have also identified studies that have raised theoretical issues. We make reference to these studies where they make a contribution to our understanding of the issues being raised and the model proposed.

Individual factors in predicting academic achievement

The BEAM proposes that adolescents have unique characteristics and resources that result in varying levels of responsiveness to different environmental factors. These individual factors interact with various systems over time and play an important role in shaping the academic potential of adolescents from refugee backgrounds at postsettlement.

Age, gender, ethnicity and English proficiency

Seven studies reviewed utilising qualitative, cross-sectional, and mixed-method methodologies explored the role of age, gender, ethnicity, and English proficiency in predicting academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds. In a study conducted on 91 adolescents from refugee backgrounds aged 15 to 21 years in Canada, age was found to have nonsignificant effects on the academic potential of adolescents from refugee backgrounds (Wilkinson, 2002). No other studies exploring the role of age in predicting academic achievement met our inclusion criteria.

Wilkinson (2002) found that for adolescents from refugee backgrounds, gender did not play a significant role in predicting academic achievement. It is possible that females from some refugee backgrounds continue to assume the deeply ingrained sociocultural perceptions of females as labourers and brides and not as learners (Lewis & Lockheed, 2006), and have reduced levels of motivation to compete on academic tasks in the school context (Dryden-Peterson, 2012). In contrast, in a study conducted with adolescents from refugee backgrounds, Cambodian females were found to fail less often at school than did Central American females or males (Rousseau & Drapeau, 2000). It was suggested that resettled Cambodian females performed better as they had closer ties to their parents, while Cambodian males had a harder time identifying with their parents in the host country. It is of note that Rousseau and Drapeau only incorporated a relatively small sample in their study. The two groups in the study also had different trauma histories, which may have impacted on their academic achievement at postsettlement. Research on the role of age and gender in predicting academic performance of adolescents from refugee background at postsettlement is limited and warrants further investigation.

Ethnicity and academic performance has been consistently identified in the literature. In a study conducted by Rousseau and Drapeau (2000), adolescents from refugee backgrounds who were from Cambodia were found to fail less often at school when compared to adolescents from refugee backgrounds from Central America. Similarly, adolescents from refugee backgrounds who resettled in the United States from Vietnam were found to perform better than adolescents from Hmong, Khmer, and Laos (Ima & Rumbaut, 1989).

Adolescents from the former Yugoslavia living in Canada were found to be more likely to achieve better academic outcomes when compared to adolescents from El Salvador, Afghanistan, Azerbaijan, Iraq, Vietnam, Somalia, Guatemala, and Pakistan (Wilkinson, 2002). This discrepancy may be due to the greater familiarity with Western school systems that adolescents from the former Yugoslavia had that adolescents from other countries did not have. Although there is general consensus regarding ethnic differences in academic performance, there is limited agreement about the explanations for these differences. Understanding ethnic differences in academic performance is critical when developing programs that target groups requiring additional facilitation to integrate and perform in the school system of the host country. However, few studies have sought to investigate and explain such differences.

Limited English proficiency has been suggested to result in linguistic barriers that contribute to greater academic difficulties for adolescents from refugee backgrounds at postsettlement (Bates et al., 2005; Kanu, 2008). Although these findings may be promising, it is of note that Bates et al.'s study only included a small female sample, and Kanu's study only included war-affected adolescents from Africa in one Canadian province, Manitoba, therefore interpretations in these studies may not be generalisable to the wider population.

The findings from Bates et al.'s (2005) and Kanu's (2008) studies were supported by the findings from Shakya et al.'s (2012) study, where information was gathered among adolescents from refugee backgrounds who had resettled in Canada. The participants identified linguistic barrier as a major difficulty impacting on their ability to understand class content, to seek clarification from teachers, and to interact with others at school. In turn, this negatively influenced their academic experience at postsettlement. Studies conducted by Naidoo (2009) and Olliff (2010) provided further suggestion that adolescents from refugee backgrounds with greater language difficulties at postsettlement may be less likely to fully integrate to the host environment and may perform poorer at school and in future employment during adulthood.

A study conducted on adolescents with English as a second language in Canada, with a large proportion of these students coming from refugee backgrounds, found that only 40% of those students received a diploma on completing high school, 46% did not complete high school at all, and 14% completed with insufficient credits to graduate from high school. High school completion and postsecondary training have been posited to contribute to subsequent employment achievement in adulthood (Derwing et al., 1999). Although the role of English proficiency has received some attention, evidence supporting the relationship between English proficiency and academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds is still lacking.

Postsettlement cognitive functioning and academic achievement

The current review did not find any studies exploring the role of cognitive functioning in predicting academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds, therefore the following discussion will include findings from studies conducted on mainstream populations to identify potential issues that may be pertinent in refugee populations, with a view to informing future research.

Early theorists defined cognitive functioning as the skills and knowledge necessary for one to solve problems and make decisions that contribute to one's life achievement (Binet & Simon, 1916). Cognitive functioning correlates positively with academic achievement scores of high school students from mainstream populations with correlation scores between .50 and .70 (e.g., Coyle & Pillow, 2008; Duckworth, Quinn, Lynam, Loeber, & Stouthamer-Loeber, 2011). Although there is strong empirical evidence for the relationship between cognitive functioning and academic achievement in mainstream populations, there remains 25% to 75% of variance in academic achievement that is unexplained by cognitive functioning (Jensen, 1998; Nisbett et al., 2012).

Defining and assessing the concept of cognitive functioning cannot be meaningfully comprehended outside the context of culture (Sternberg, 2004). Cognitive functioning is understood in diverse ways between different ethnic groups. Some groups may put greater emphasis on nonverbal skills versus verbal skills (Heath, 1983). In spite of such cultural variations, nonverbal skills remain underrepresented in most psychometric tests that have been standardised in Western countries. These instruments may not provide a valid indication of the cognitive functioning of adolescents from cultural minority backgrounds (Reynolds, 2000a) or refugee backgrounds.

In studying children from Zambia and from England (Serpell, 1979), it was found that children from Zambia performed better on nonverbal hands-on tasks whereas the children from England performed better with pencil-and-paper tasks. In a similar study, Australian children who were of Anglo Australian descent used verbal and school-appropriate problem-solving strategies whereas children who were of Aboriginal descent used visual problem-solving strategies (Kearins, 1981). Chinese students with English schooling performed as well or better than European students on tasks using combinations and permutations, whereas students with Chinese schooling performed poorer than European students on these tasks (Goodnow, 1962). These studies suggest that the type of test stimulus used to assess cognitive functioning results in marked differences in test outcomes (see also Ceci & Roazzi, 1994; Saxe, 1990). In this respect, it is imperative for appropriate test methods to be used to accurately identify the cognitive functioning of adolescents from different ethnic backgrounds (Reynolds, 2000b).

To address cultural variations when defining and assessing cognitive functioning, an increasing number of nonverbal cognitive tests have been developed. Instruments that require little or no spoken English during test administration, such as the Comprehensive Test of Nonverbal Cognitive Functioning (Hammill, Pearson, & Wiederholt, 1997), and the Reynolds Intellectual Assessment Scales (Reynolds & Kamphaus, 2003), have been developed to address the growing need for culture-reduced measures. While findings conducted on mainstream populations have suggested a positive relationship between cognitive functioning and academic achievement in adolescents, there remains limited to no evidence supporting a similar relationship in adolescents from refugee backgrounds.

Postsettlement psychological distress and academic achievement

The proposed model recognises that the reciprocal interactions between adolescents from refugee backgrounds and contextual systems can serve to mend psychosocial ruptures experienced prior to resettlement and in turn impact the development of adolescents from refugee backgrounds at postsettlement. The adaptive functioning of adolescents from refugee backgrounds is influenced by sociohistorical events and conditions which impact their psychological and emotional well-being at postsettlement. In turn, this affects their academic potential following resettlement. One qualitative study and one cross-sectional study explored the role of psychological distress in predicting academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds.

In spite of burgeoning research on the impact of adolescents' level of psychological distress on academic achievement (e.g., Lecompte, Kaufman, Rousseeuw, & Tassin, 1983), limited research has focused on adolescents from refugee backgrounds. Rousseau et al. (1996) conducted a study on adolescents from refugee backgrounds who resettled from Southeast Asia and Central America to Canada and found that emotional and psychological problems were positively linked to learning difficulties at school. The researchers further suggested that this association may differ according to adolescents' culture of origin, type and extent of psychological and emotional difficulties, and the measure used to determine learning difficulties. Although findings of Rousseau et al.'s study appear promising, the indicators of learning difficulties in the study were not robust enough to reduce variability in the interschool and interteacher ratings of learning difficulties. Findings of the study should therefore be interpreted with caution.

The trends observed in Rousseau et al.'s study (1996) were corroborated by Beiser (1999), who found that adolescents from refugee backgrounds who were originally from Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia experienced emotional and psychological difficulties at postsettlement in Canada and that these problems negatively impacted their school performance. It is of note that ethnic origin, type of sponsorship, and arrival arrangements were not provided in the study. It is possible that these factors may have also impacted on the school performance of the participants.

The level of psychological distress of adolescents from refugee backgrounds is largely dependent on both premigration trauma exposure and the immense demands of resettlement in a foreign country (Pumariega, Rothe, & Pumariega, 2005). People from refugee backgrounds arriving in developed countries tend to have limited education and job skills and live in neighbourhoods where rents are low and crime rates are high. Adolescents from refugee backgrounds may be hypervigilant to impending threats and risks of criminal violence, resulting in poorer emotional and psychological functioning at resettlement (Beiser, Hou, Hyman, & Tousignant, 2002; Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2001). Adolescents from refugee backgrounds are subjected to multiple challenges in the process of resettlement; they have to negotiate various systems and adjust to a new culture and language (Kia-Keating & Ellis, 2007). Knowledge on the impact of the level of psychological distress on the academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds remains limited and requires further empirical support.

Synthesis: Individual factors and academic achievement

With reference to the proposed model, empirical evidence included in this review supports the importance of considering certain unique characteristics of adolescents from refugee backgrounds in predicting academic achievement. Significant differences in academic achievement have been found between adolescents from refugee backgrounds of different ethnic backgrounds. Being female, having greater English proficiency, and lower levels of psychological distress have also been found to positively correlate with greater academic achievement. Age, however, was not found to have significant impact on academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds. At this point, knowledge regarding the role of cognitive functioning is limited and requires further investigation.

Premigration trauma and loss experience in predicting academic achievement

The proposed model acknowledges the importance of mending psychosocial ruptures to multilevel systems experienced by people from refugee backgrounds at premigration and at migration to facilitate recovery and adaptation at postsettlement. The process of developing social coherence and adjusting to the country of resettlement through the repair of such damages is imperative to adolescents' academic achievement.

Adolescents from refugee backgrounds have often been exposed to trauma experiences prior to leaving their countries of origin. Trauma exposure coupled with experiences of loss associated with moving and transiting to the country of resettlement play a significant role in adolescents' level of functioning postsettlement (Ahearn, Loughry, & Ager, 1999). While there is extensive research on the prevalence and role of trauma experiences and mental health outcomes of adolescents from refugee backgrounds, studies investigating the role of both trauma and loss in predicting academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds are limited. The following discussion will examine the role of trauma and loss in predicting academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds at postsettlement.

Premigration trauma and academic achievement

Trauma experiences have been conceived by the proposed model in the context of ruptures and damages to psychosocial domains experienced by adolescents from refugee backgrounds. If ruptures to these psychosocial domains are not mended after arrival, the general development and academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds may be compromised due to a lack of social coherence and adjustment. One cross-sectional study explored the role of premigration trauma in predicting academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds.

Many adolescents from refugee backgrounds are entering countries of resettlement having experienced significant levels of direct and vicarious trauma exposure (Almqvist & Brandell-Forsberg, 1997; Sack, Clarke, & Seeley, 1996). Trauma experiences include exposure to war-related stressors including violence, death, and torture; separation from caregivers; and immense deprivation of basic necessities (McBrien, 2005; Pynoos, Kinzie, & Gordon, 2001).

While there is limited evidence on the association between premigration trauma and academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds, there is extensive evidence supporting the effects of direct and indirect trauma experiences on the psychopathology of adolescents from refugee backgrounds (e.g., Birman & Tran, 2008; Silove, Steel, Bauman, Chey, & McFarlane, 2007). Some researchers have suggested that premigration trauma also has the potential to have serious and long-standing influence on their learning abilities and academic potential (Kia-Keating & Ellis, 2007; Walker-Dalhouse & Dalhouse, 2009). Trauma experienced in refugee camps and during resettlement can cause adolescents from refugee backgrounds to become suspicious and distrustful of authority figures (Hynes, 2003), including teachers and principals (Igoa, 1995). This can subsequently affect their academic achievement in the host country. It is possible that premigration trauma may be an antecedent to increased rates of school dropout and poor academic achievement (Fox, Muennich Cowell, & Montgomery, 1994).

A study conducted among adolescents from refugee backgrounds who resettled from Cambodia to a city in the Western United States concurred that adolescents from refugee backgrounds who had greater lifetime exposure to trauma experiences had significantly higher PTSD scores, behaviour problems, and lower academic achievement (Berthold, 2000). Premigration trauma may affect the adolescent's ability to concentrate in class and subsequently impact academic achievement (Eth & Pynoos, 1985). In fact, academic difficulties of adolescents from refugee backgrounds may be further exacerbated by limited resources at mainstream schools to manage the emotional difficulties caused by premigration trauma (Taylor & Stanovic, 2005). Although findings of Berthold's study are promising, there remains limited knowledge on the role of trauma in predicting academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds. Further empirical evidence is needed to substantiate these claims.

Premigration loss experience and academic achievement

Experiences of loss have been conceived by the proposed model in the context of ruptures and damages to the psychosocial domain of interpersonal bonds and networks experienced by adolescents from refugee backgrounds. The model stresses the importance of reparative experiences in response to loss experiences to enhance the general development and academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds.

The role of loss experience has been receiving greater focus in the literature (Miller et al., 2002; Nickerson et al., 2011). One qualitative study explored the role of premigration loss in predicting academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds. Refugee resettlement is typically characterised by physical displacement, social disruption, and interpersonal challenges, and these experiences of disconnection are associated with sentiments of loss, grief, and emotional distress (Morgan, 1994; Vromans, Schweitzer, & Brough, 2012). Some adolescents from refugee backgrounds experience family separation as they flee persecution and are unaccompanied or become separated from families (Boyden, de Berry, Feeny, & Hart, 2002).

A qualitative study conducted by Kanu (2008) suggested that the loss experience due to being separated from family members may have detrimental effects on academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds. Separation from family may result in a deep sense of loneliness and deprive adolescents of appropriate role models who could provide them with the stability and structure necessary for academic success. Lustig et al.'s (2004) study suggested similar challenges to academic achievement as a result of trauma and loss exposure. While there have been a few studies investigating the impact of loss experience of adults from refugee backgrounds (e.g., Birman & Tran, 2008; Schweitzer, Melville, Steel, & Lacherez, 2006), limited attention has been given to the role of loss experience in predicting postsettlement academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds. Further empirical evidence is needed to understand the impact of premigration loss on academic achievement.

Synthesis: Premigration factors and academic achievement

According to the proposed model, premigration ruptures may impact the level of adjustment of adolescents from refugee backgrounds. In turn, this influences their academic achievement at postsettlement. Empirical evidence has shown that lower levels of premigration trauma and premigration loss negatively correlate with greater academic achievement at postsettlement, thus supporting the importance of considering the role of premigration ruptures, such as premigration trauma and premigration loss, in predicting academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds.

Postsettlement psychosocial factors in predicting academic achievement

The BEAM, with its emphasis on reciprocity, acknowledges that the development of adolescents depends on the complex reciprocal interactions between the active person and various systems. These interactions buffer psychosocial stressors experienced by adolescents from refugee backgrounds, mend psychosocial ruptures experienced prior to and at migration, and in turn impact the general development and academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds at postsettlement.

While there is extensive research on the role of psychosocial factors in predicting academic achievement including social support and school connectedness in mainstream populations (e.g., Gerdes & Mallinckrodt, 1994; Rickinson & Rutherford, 1995, 1996; Wince & Borden, 1995), research on the psychosocial predictors of academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds remains limited. The role of social support and school connectedness will be the focus of the following discussion.

Postsettlement social support and academic achievement

The proposed model suggests that social support is conceptualised in the context of the microsystem and contributes to the general development and academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds by increasing interpersonal bonds and networks, as well as providing a sense of safety and security. Four qualitative studies explored the role of postsettlement social support in predicting academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds.

Social support may be understood as the positive regard provided by others (Harter, 1985). Feeling socially included at all levels in the country of resettlement is imperative to the general well-being of adolescents from refugee backgrounds (Brough, Gorman, Ramirez, & Westoby, 2003; O'Sullivan & Olliff, 2006). Unaccompanied adolescents from refugee backgrounds have been shown to be at increased risk of being psychologically distressed (Felsman, Leong, Johnson, & Felsman, 1990), but having stable and supportive peer relationships may provide some alleviation of levels of distress by facilitating social adjustment (Almqvist & Broberg, 1999). Adolescents who reported having close friends to depend on perceived themselves to be more socially acceptable and demonstrated higher perceptions of self-worth (Kovacev & Shute, 2004).

Brown et al. (2006) and Kanu (2008) conducted qualitative studies on adolescents from refugee backgrounds who resettled in Australia and Canada, respectively. These studies suggested that having emotional and instrumental support from parents and teachers may be necessary for adolescents from refugee backgrounds to achieve academic success. In fact, having strong family and community support may buffer the impact of factors that are commonly associated with school dropout, such as residing in low-income neighbourhoods, hailing from low socioeconomic backgrounds, and having poor English proficiency at resettlement.

In qualitative studies conducted on African adolescents who have resettled in the United States (Davies, 2008; Walker-Dalhouse & Dalhouse, 2009), results show that having a nurturing school environment may buffer the traumatic impact of war, and thus be beneficial for the academic outcomes of adolescents from refugee backgrounds. One of the parent participants in Walker-Dalhouse and Dalhouse's study suggested that adolescents from refugee backgrounds may develop resentment towards their teachers in view of receiving limited support from them. This in turn can negatively impact their learning capacity and level of motivation to perform well academically. Furthermore, teachers in mainstream schools may not be sufficiently trained to understand the challenges and experiences of adolescents from refugee backgrounds and may not adequately attend to their attempts to succeed in the host environment. Although the role of social support in predicting academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds has received some attention in the literature, further empirical evidence is needed to substantiate these claims.

Postsettlement school connectedness and academic achievement

The multilevel nature of the proposed model conceptualises schools, school policies, and education programs in the context of the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, and macrosystem. The interactions between the active person and the school in the context of various systems impact on the general development and academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds.

Schools play a central role in defining and affecting adolescents' overall sense of community and may be one of the most important factors contributing to their future achievement (Suárez-Orozco & Suárez-Orozco, 2001). Schools facilitate the development of identities, roles, and interpersonal bonds and provide security and safety for adolescents from refugee backgrounds. Adjustment to school and attaining a sense of belonging has been suggested to contribute significantly to the overall adjustment of adolescents from refugee backgrounds (Kia-Keating & Ellis, 2007).

School connectedness indicates adolescents' perception of feeling cared for within the school context and the extent of their level of attachment and involvement in their school (Ozer, 2005; Wilson, 2004). While empirical research on adolescent refugee populations is limited, numerous studies have been conducted with mainstream populations. These studies reported a positive relationship between school connectedness and academic achievement (Bonny, Britto, Klostermann, Horaung, & Slap, 2000; Eisenberg, Neumark-Sztainer, & Perry, 2003). Adolescents who are high on school connectedness may be more likely to develop supportive relationships with teachers and peers (Battistich, Schaps, & Wilson, 2004; Whitlock, 2006).

In a qualitative study conducted on African adolescents who have resettled in Australia (Brown et al., 2006), participants suggested that having a sense of belonging may protect adolescents from experiencing emotional difficulties and may result in successful learning for adolescents from refugee backgrounds. Adolescents from refugee backgrounds who resettle in host countries face specific obstacles, such as cultural and linguistic differences and possible discrimination, which may reduce their motivation to strive academically (Suárez-Orozco, 2000). Therefore, the need for a sense of school connectedness may be particularly critical in facilitating positive academic outcomes for adolescents from refugee backgrounds.

While research on the impact of school connectedness on academic achievement of adolescents from mainstream populations is currently extensive, few studies have been conducted on adolescents from refugee backgrounds. Although there is some empirical evidence suggesting that school connectedness may predict academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds, further investigation to support these findings is warranted.

Synthesis: Postsettlement factors and academic achievement

According to the BEAM, interactions between active adolescents from refugee backgrounds and their external systems can mend psychosocial ruptures experienced at premigration and can, in turn, impact their academic achievement at postsettlement. Empirical evidence included in this review supports the importance of having social support and school connectedness, which provide safety and security to adolescents from refugee backgrounds. In turn, these interactions repair premigration ruptures and facilitate better academic achievement at postsettlement.

Academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds

The reciprocal and multidimensional nature of the BEAM helps to conceptualise the development of adolescents from refugee backgrounds as one that is largely influenced by complex reciprocal interactions between active adolescents and various systems, which can serve to mend psychosocial ruptures experienced prior to and at migration and impact the development of adolescents from refugee backgrounds. The interactions between active adolescents and various systems may be pivotal in predicting academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds at postsettlement.

While research on refugee populations is limited, extensive research on mainstream populations supports the role of academic achievement in predicting economic outcomes in adulthood (United Nations Children's Fund [UNICEF], 2000; Wilkinson, 2002). A longitudinal study was conducted on Australian individuals from mainstream schools over a 20-year period. School engagement, which was an antecedent of academic achievement, was found to predict better educational and occupational outcomes in adulthood, over and above the impact of family background (Abbott-Chapman et al., 2014). Although it is clear that attaining academic achievement is important in determining long-term outcomes in adulthood, there remains limited knowledge and understanding of the resources and mitigating factors necessary in facilitating academic performance in adolescents from refugee backgrounds.

Conclusion and future directions

Overall, there is empirical evidence that supports the proposed bio-ecological adaptive model in that individual, premigration, and postsettlement factors play a role in predicting academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds. Adolescents arrive in the country of resettlement with unique resources and characteristics that interact with external systems, which in turn influence their academic achievement at postsettlement. Empirical evidence included in this review supports the role of individual factors in predicting academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds. Empirical evidence revealed no significant differences in academic achievement based on age, but suggested that females may out-perform males in academic achievement at postsettlement.

Significant differences in academic achievement were also found among adolescents from different ethnic backgrounds. Adolescents with better English proficiency were found to perform better academically at postsettlement. Although no studies were found in relation to the role of cognitive functioning in predicting academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds, there is wide agreement supporting the positive association between cognitive functioning and academic achievement in mainstream populations. Lower levels of psychological distress also positively correlated with better academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds.

The BEAM acknowledges the importance of mending psychosocial ruptures to various systems experienced at premigration to facilitate recovery and adaptation at postsettlement, which in turn impacts academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds. Empirical evidence included in this review supports the role of premigration factors in predicting academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds. Lower levels of premigration trauma and premigration loss have been suggested to correlate with higher levels of academic achievement.

The model acknowledges that reciprocal interactions between the active person and various systems can buffer psychosocial stressors and mend psychosocial ruptures experienced at premigration. In turn, this impacts the academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds at postsettlement. Empirical evidence included in this review supports the role of postsettlement factors in predicting academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds and revealed that higher levels of postsettlement social support and postsettlement school connectedness may predict higher levels of academic achievement.

While the current findings are promising, there are several gaps that future research can aim to clarify. There remains limited evidence in the various areas investigated, and few of the studies included in this review were carried out in the recent decade. The studies included were either cross-sectional designs without comparison groups or qualitative studies with small sample sizes. Further empirical and longitudinal research utilising more rigorous designs are required to substantiate the proposed model.

The current review provides a broad overview of the role of individual, premigration, and postsettlement factors in predicting academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds. However, further investigation is needed to explore the impact of specific interactions between individual factors and various external systems, and among various external systems, on repairing premigration ruptures, and in turn enhancing the academic potential of adolescents at postsettlement. Future research should also expand to areas such as teacher's training and attitude, appropriate matching of grade level to learning ability, mode of instruction and examination, premigration school experience, and acculturative stress, to gain new insights into the academic achievement of adolescents from refugee backgrounds. Given the rapidly increasing number of adolescents from refugee backgrounds worldwide, there is a pressing need to address this critical yet largely elusive area of refugee research.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

We would like to take this opportunity to thank the staff and students of Milpera State High School for providing valuable information to support this review and subsequent research endeavours in partnership with Queensland University of Technology. The support of all researchers in the team, with special mention to Associate Professor Nigar Khawaja, is greatly appreciated.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Note

Biographies

Charissa W. S. Wong, DPsych (Clin), BBehSc (Psych Hons), completed her Doctor of Psychology (clinical) degree at the Queensland University of Technology in Australia and is a registered psychologist. Dr Wong’s interests include: refugee mental health and well-being, and assessment and treatment of psychosis and other severe psychopathologies. She is currently the Principal Investigator of two studies investigating the predictors of academic achievement in adolescents from refugee backgrounds in an Australian sample.

Robert D. Schweitzer, BSocSc (Hons), MA (Clin Psy), PhD, is Professor of Psychology at the School of Psychology and Counselling at the Queensland University of Technology. Professor Schweitzer researches adversity and mental health in people from refugee backgrounds, and also psychotherapy process and outcome. He is currently the Principal Investigator of an Australian Red Cross funded study of mental well-being in women who have entered Australia under the Women-at-Risk Program. His published works focus on phenomenology, treatment of major mental illness, and refugee-related research.

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