Effects of Yoga and Physical Exercise on Adolescent Development and Learning: A Randomized Trial

Abstract

Academic success during adolescence lays the foundation for future achievements. This three-arm randomized trial aimed to evaluate the effects of three interventions on holistic development in 300 students (mean age 13.02 ± 1.13) over 14 weeks. The interventions—hatha yoga (Group A), hatha yoga integrated with ancient Indian learning principles (Group B), and physical exercise (Group C)—were conducted three to six times weekly for 50 min, focusing on muscular fitness, academic performance, cognitive and academic skills, self-efficacy, and test anxiety. While the improvements in Groups A and C were comparable, Group B showed the most significant improvements across all measures (p < .05), with notable gains in comprehensive skills, creative writing, and reading. Group B’s holistic approach led to superior academic skill development and cognitive enhancements. The findings highlight yoga’s distinct impact on cognitive abilities and self-efficacy, while physical exercise enhanced cognitive function. This study underscores the value of integrating ancient educational philosophies with contemporary pedagogical practices to support holistic student development. Incorporating such comprehensive programs into school curricula can prepare adolescents for academic and life challenges, fostering long-term success.

Keywords

adolescent development academic performance yoga learning strategies physical exercise

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Abhinavgupta

(1985). Srimadbhagavadgita with gitarthasangraha ( Sankaranarayanan

, Ed 1.). Oriental Research Institute. https://archive.org/details/ShrimadBhagavtaGitaWithTheGitarthaSangrahaOfAbhinavaguptaDr.S.Satyanarayan/

Ahmed

M. D.

Al Salim

Z. A.

(2024). Provision of quality physical education to enhance the motive of physical activity and its underlying behavior among university students. Heliyon, 10(3), Article e25152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e25152

Alaagib

N. A.

Musa

O. A.

Saeed

A. M.

(2019). Comparison of the effectiveness of lectures based on problems and traditional lectures in physiology teaching in Sudan. BMC Medical Education, 19(1), Article 365. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12909-019-1799-0

Altermann

Gröpel

(2024). Physical fitness is related to concentration performance in adolescents. Scientific Reports, 14(1), Article 587. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-50721-0

Al-Wardat

Salimei

Alrabbaie

Etoom

Khashroom

Clarke

Almhdawi

K. A.

Best

(2024). Exploring the links between physical activity, emotional regulation, and mental well-being in Jordanian University Students. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 13(6), Article 1533. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13061533

Anne-Line Bjerknes

T. W.

Foyn-Bruun

. (2024). A systematic review of curiosity and wonder in natural science and early childhood education research. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 38(1), 50–65. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568543.2023.2192249

Babu

M. G. R.

Kadavigere

Koteshwara

Sathian

Rai

K. S.

(2020). Rajyoga meditation induces grey matter volume changes in regions that process reward and happiness. Scientific Reports, 10(1), Article 16177. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-73221-x

Batini

D’Autilia

Barbisoni

Toti

(2024). Reading aloud and the use of CAS-2 battery to assess cognitive skills improvement. Education Research International, 2024, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1155/2024/8868497

Bessa

Hastie

Ramos

Mesquita

(2021). What actually differs between traditional teaching and sport education in students’ learning outcomes? A critical systematic review. Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 20, 110–125. https://doi.org/10.52082/jssm.2021.110

10.

Bettinger

Ludvigsen

Rege

Solli

I. F.

Yeager

(2018). Increasing perseverance in math: Evidence from a field experiment in Norway. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 146, 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2017.11.032

11.

Bodner

G. M.

McMillen

T. L. B.

(1986). Cognitive restructuring as an early stage in problem solving. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 23(8), 727–737. https://doi.org/10.1002/tea.3660230807

12.

Bowen

D. J.

Kreuter

Spring

Cofta-Woerpel

Linnan

Weiner

Bakken

Kaplan

C. P.

Squiers

Fabrizio

Fernandez

(2009). How we design feasibility studies. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 36(5), 452–457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2009.02.002

13.

Brabeck

Jeffrey

Sara

(2015). Practice for knowledge acquisition (not drill and kill). American Psychological Association.

14.

Brunner

Abramovitch

Etherton

(2017). A yoga program for cognitive enhancement. PLoS One, 12(8), Article e0182366. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182366

15.

Burke

H. R.

(1958). Raven’s progressive matrices: A review and critical evaluation. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 93(2), 199–228. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221325.1958.10532420

16.

Butzer

LoRusso

A. M.

Windsor

Riley

Frame

Khalsa

S. B. S.

Conboy

(2017). A qualitative examination of yoga for middle school adolescents. Advances in School Mental Health Promotion, 10(3), 195–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/1754730X.2017.1325328

17.

Campelo

de Araújo

J. R.

Aristizabal

J. P.

de Souza

de Castilho

G. M.

(2025). Long-term effects of yoga-based practices on neural, cognitive, psychological, and physiological outcomes in adults: A scoping review and evidence map. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies, 25(1), Article 92. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12906-025-04825-x

18.

Cavilla

(2017). The effects of student reflection on academic performance and motivation. SAGE Open, 7(3), Article 215824401773379. https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244017733790

19.

Chemers

M. M.

Garcia

B. F.

(2001). Academic self-efficacy and first year college student performance and adjustment. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(1), Article 55.

20.

Cheng

Zhao

Liu

Yang

Luo

(2022). The physiological mechanism and effect of resistance exercise on cognitive function in the elderly people. Frontiers in Public Health, 10, Article 1013734. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.1013734

21.

Chinmayananda

(1976). Holy Gita. Chinmaya Prakashan. https://archive.org/details/holygeetabyswamichinmayana/

22.

Dahl

R. E.

Allen

N. B.

Wilbrecht

Suleiman

A. B.

(2018). Importance of investing in adolescence from a developmental science perspective. Nature, 554(7693), 441–450. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature25770

23.

Daly

L. A.

Haden

S. C.

Hagins

Papouchis

Ramirez

P. M.

(2015). Yoga and emotion regulation in high school students: A randomized controlled trial. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2015(1), Article 794928. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/794928

24.

Darling-Hammond

Flook

Cook-Harvey

Barron

Osher

(2020). Implications for educational practice of the science of learning and development. Applied Developmental Science, 24(2), 97–140. https://doi.org/10.1080/10888691.2018.1537791

25.

de Jong

Lazonder

A. W.

Chinn

C. A.

Fischer

Gobert

Hmelo-Silver

C. E.

Koedinger

K. R.

Krajcik

J. S.

Kyza

E. A.

Linn

M. C.

Pedaste

Scheiter

Zacharia

Z. C.

(2023). Let’s talk evidence – The case for combining inquiry-based and direct instruction. Educational Research Review, 39, Article 100536. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2023.100536

26.

Desai

Tailor

Bhatt

(2015). Effects of yoga on brain waves and structural activation: A review. Complementary Therapies in Clinical Practice, 21(2), 112–118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ctcp.2015.02.002

27.

Driscoll

(2007). Westside Test Anxiety Scale validation. Education Resources Information Center. http://www.testanxietycontrol.com/research/sv.pdf.

28.

Eaude

(2009). Happiness, emotional well-being and mental health - What has children’s spirituality to offer? International Journal of Children’s Spirituality, 14(3), 185–196. https://doi.org/10.1080/13644360903086455

29.

Ferrer-Uris

Ramos

M. A.

Busquets

Angulo-Barroso

(2022). Can exercise shape your brain? A review of aerobic exercise effects on cognitive function and neuro-physiological underpinning mechanisms. AIMS Neuroscience, 9(2), 150–174. https://doi.org/10.3934/Neuroscience.2022009

30.

Forrin

N. D.

MacLeod

C. M.

(2018). This time it’s personal: The memory benefit of hearing oneself. Memory, 26(4), 574–579. https://doi.org/10.1080/09658211.2017.1383434

31.

Freimann

Mayseless

(2020). Surrender to another person: The case of a spiritual master. Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 65(5), 1163–1186. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022167820975636

32.

Froh

J. J.

Sefick

W. J.

Emmons

R. A.

(2008). Counting blessings in early adolescents: An experimental study of gratitude and subjective well-being. Journal of School Psychology, 46(2), 213–233. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2007.03.005

33.

Goldwater

M. B.

Schalk

(2016). Relational categories as a bridge between cognitive and educational research. Psychological Bulletin, 142(7), 729–757. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000043

34.

Gothe

N. P.

McAuley

(2015). Yoga and cognition. Psychosomatic Medicine, 77(7), 784–797. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000218

35.

Harris

Clayton

(2019). The current emphasis on learning outcomes. International Journal of Training Research, 17(2), 93–97. https://doi.org/10.1080/14480220.2019.1644777

36.

Hattie

J. A. C.

Donoghue

G. M.

(2016). Learning strategies: A synthesis and conceptual model. NPJ Science of Learning, 1(1), Article 16013. https://doi.org/10.1038/npjscilearn.2016.13

37.

Hoyle

R. H.

Davisson

E. K.

(2023). Forms of intellectual humility and their associations with features of knowledge, beliefs, and opinions. In Ottati

Stern

(Eds.), Divided: Open-mindedness and dogmatism in a polarized world (pp. 101–120). Oxford University Press.

38.

Huéscar Hernández

Moreno-Murcia

J. A.

Cid

Monteiro

Rodrigues

. (2020). Passion or perseverance? The effect of perceived autonomy support and grit on academic performance in college students. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(6), Article 2143. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17062143

39.

JASP Team. (2022). JASP (Version 0.16.2) [Computer software]. https://jasp-stats.org/

40.

Jiang

Wang

Mao

(2025). Effects of resistance exercise on cognitive function, neurotrophic factors, brain structure, and brain function in older adults: A narrative review. Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, 107(1), 15–38. https://doi.org/10.1177/13872877251359630

41.

Jnaneshwar

(1994). Bhavartha Dipika Jnaneshwari ( Velury

, ed., 5th ed.). Samata Books.

42.

John, & Raven

. (2003). Raven progressive matrices. In McCallum

R. S.

(Ed.), Handbook of nonverbal assessment (pp. 223–237). Springer US.

43.

Khunti

Boniface

Norris

De Oliveira

C. M.

Shelton

(2023). The effects of yoga on mental health in school-aged children: A systematic review and narrative synthesis of randomised control trials. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 28(3), 1217–1238. https://doi.org/10.1177/13591045221136016

44.

Knesek

G. E.

(2022, April 25). Why focusing on grades is a barrier to learning. Harvard Business Publishing.

45.

Kraus

Hirschland

R. P.

(1954). Minimum muscular fitness tests in school children. Research Quarterly. American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 25(2), 178–188. https://doi.org/10.1080/10671188.1954.10624957

46.

Krumrei-Mancuso

E. J.

(2017). Intellectual humility and prosocial values: Direct and mediated effects. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 12(1), 13–28. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2016.1167938

47.

Krumrei-Mancuso

E. J.

Haggard

M. C.

LaBouff

J. P.

Rowatt

W. C.

(2020). Links between intellectual humility and acquiring knowledge. The Journal of Positive Psychology, 15(2), 155–170. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439760.2019.1579359

48.

Kuvalayananda

Vinekar

S. L.

(1963). Yogic therapy: Its basic principles and methods ( Digambarji

, ed., 2nd ed., Vol. 1). Government of India Press.

49.

Kwasky

A. N.

Serowoky

M. L.

(2018). Yoga to enhance self efficacy: An intervention for at-risk youth. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing, 32(1), 82–85. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apnu.2017.10.009

50.

Kweldju

(2015). Neurobiology research findings: How the brain works during reading. PASAA, 50(1), 125–142. https://doi.org/10.58837/CHULA.PASAA.50.1.5

51.

Larsson

Werthén

Carlsson

Salim

Davidsson

Vaz

Sousa

Norberg

(2023). Does deliberate practice surpass didactic training in learning empathy skills? – A randomized controlled study. Nordic Psychology, 77(1), 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1080/19012276.2023.2247572

52.

Wang

Zhao

Zhang

(2024). The association between physical exercise behavior and psychological resilience of teenagers: An examination of the chain mediating effect. Scientific Reports, 14(1), Article 9372. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-60038-1

53.

Liu

Gao

Zhang

(2022). Effects of physical exercises on emotion regulation: A meta-analysis. medRxiv, 2022.07.04.22277120. https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.04.22277120

54.

London

Sessa

V. I.

Shelley

L. A.

(2023). Developing self-awareness: Learning processes for self- and interpersonal growth. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 10(1), 261–288. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-120920-044531

55.

Madhusudana

(1936). Srimadbhagavadgita gudharthadipika ( Pansikar

, ed., 2nd ed.). Nirnaya Sagar Press.

56.

Martin

Peck

Terry

(2024). Yoga in schools that contributes to a positive classroom atmosphere for young children and educators: A PRISMA scoping review. Frontiers in Education, 9, Article 1352780. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1352780

57.

McClelland

Pitt

Stein

(2015). Enhanced academic performance using a novel classroom physical activity intervention to increase awareness, attention and self-control: Putting embodied cognition into practice. Improving Schools, 18(1), 83–100. https://doi.org/10.1177/1365480214562125

58.

Mccombs

(1991). Motivation and lifelong learning. Educational Psychologist, 26, 117–127. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326985ep2602_4

59.

McGeown

Smith

K. C.

(2024). Reading engagement matters! A new scale to measure and support children’s engagement with books. The Reading Teacher, 77(4), 462–472. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.2267

60.

Menezes

C. B.

Dalpiaz

N. R.

Kiesow

L. G.

Sperb

Hertzberg

Oliveira

A. A.

(2015). Yoga and emotion regulation: A review of primary psychological outcomes and their physiological correlates. Psychology & Neuroscience, 8(1), 82–101. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0100353

61.

Mohamed

Rashid

R. A.

Alqaryouti

M. H.

(2022). Conceptualizing the complexity of reflective practice in education. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 1008234. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1008234

62.

Moonaz

Nault

Cramer

Ward

(2021). CLARIFY 2021: Explanation and elaboration of the Delphi-based guidelines for the reporting of yoga research. BMJ Open, 11(8), Article e045812. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-045812

63.

Moreno

Becerra

Ortega

Suarez-Ortegón

M. F.

Moreno

(2023). Effect of Hatha Yoga and meditation on academic stress in medical students—Clinical trial. Advances in Integrative Medicine, 10(3), 122–130. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aimed.2023.09.001

64.

Murillo-Llorente

M. T.

Navarro-Martínez

Valle

V. I.

Pérez-Bermejo

(2021). Using the reflective journal to improve practical skills integrating affective and self-critical aspects in impoverished international environments. A pilot test. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(16), Article 8876. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18168876

65.

Murphy

Eduljee

N. B.

Croteau

(2021). Teacher-centered versus student-centered teaching. Journal of Effective Teaching in Higher Education, 4(1), 18–39. https://doi.org/10.36021/jethe.v4i1.156

66.

Nguyen

Grummitt

Barrett

E. L.

Bailey

Gardner

L. A.

Champion

K. E.

Halladay

Maratos

F. A.

Hunter

Rowlinson

Chapman

Newton

N. C.

Birrell

(2025). The relationship between emotion regulation and mental health in adolescents: Self-compassion as a moderator. Mental Health & Prevention, 38, Article 200430. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mhp.2025.200430

67.

Oby

E. R.

Golub

M. D.

Hennig

J. A.

Degenhart

A. D.

Tyler-Kabara

E. C.

B. M.

Chase

S. M.

Batista

A. P.

(2019). New neural activity patterns emerge with long-term learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 116(30), 15210–15215. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1820296116

68.

Oliveira

Roberto

M. S.

Pereira

N. S.

Marques-Pinto

Veiga-Simão

A. M.

(2021). Impacts of social and emotional learning interventions for teachers on teachers’ outcomes: A systematic review with meta-analysis. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 677217. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.677217

69.

Olivo

Nilsson

Garzón

Lebedev

Wåhlin

Tarassova

Ekblom

Lövdén

(2021). Immediate effects of a single session of physical exercise on cognition and cerebral blood flow: A randomized controlled study of older adults. NeuroImage, 225, Article 117500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117500

70.

Osborne

Belmont

R. S.

Peixoto

R. P.

De Azevedo

I. O. S.

De Carvalho Junior

A. F. P.

(2016). Obstacles for physical education teachers in public schools: an unsustainable situation. Motriz: Revista de Educação Física, 22(4), 310–318. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1980-6574201600040015

71.

A. Y.

Tsui

A. S.

Kinicki

A. J.

Waldman

D. A.

Xiao

Song

L. J.

(2014). Humble chief executive officers’ connections to top management team integration and middle managers’ responses. Administrative Science Quarterly, 59(1), 34–72. https://doi.org/10.1177/0001839213520131

72.

Peng

M. Y.-P.

Feng

Zhao

Chong

(2021). Use of knowledge transfer theory to improve learning outcomes of cognitive and non-cognitive skills of university students: Evidence from Taiwan. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, Article 583722. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.583722

73.

Peng

Kievit

R. A.

(2020). The development of academic achievement and cognitive abilities: A bidirectional perspective. Child Development Perspectives, 14(1), 15–20.

74.

Porter

Schumann

(2018). Intellectual humility and openness to the opposing view. Self and Identity, 17(2), 139–162. https://doi.org/10.1080/15298868.2017.1361861

75.

Prabha

(2025). Challenges for implementation holistic development in school education. Shanlax International Journal of Arts, Science and Humanities, 12(S2), 63–68. https://doi.org/10.34293/sijash.v12iS2-Jan.8875

76.

Prajapati

S. K.

Yadav

T. S.

Kumari

Németh

(2023). Challenges physical education teachers face in schools across India. European Journal of Physical Education and Sport Science, 10(2), 104–115. https://doi.org/10.46827/ejpe.v10i2.4979

77.

Pritchard

(2020). Educating for intellectual humility and conviction. Journal of Philosophy of Education, 54(2), 398–409. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9752.12422

78.

Purdon

(2021). Cognitive restructuring. In Wenzel

(Ed.), Handbook of cognitive behavioral therapy: Overview and approaches (Vol. 1; pp. 207–234). American Psychological Association.

79.

Qin

W. K. Y.

Khoo

(2025). Developing a model of quality physical education in the Chinese context: A grounded theory investigation of secondary school physical education teachers’ perceptions. Frontiers in Public Health, 13, Article 1569222. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2025.1569222

80.

Ramsukhdas

(1985). Srimad Bhagavadgita Sadhak Sanjeevani (90th ed.). Gita Press.

81.

Rieger

Göllner

Spengler

Trautwein

Nagengast

Roberts

B. W.

(2022). The persistence of students’ academic effort: The unique and combined effects of conscientiousness and individual interest. Learning and Instruction, 80, Article 101613. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2022.101613

82.

Robinson

M. F.

Meisinger

E. B.

Joyner

R. E.

(2019). The influence of oral versus silent reading on reading comprehension in students with reading disabilities. Learning Disability Quarterly, 42(2), 105–116. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731948718806665

83.

Sánchez-Álvarez

Berrios Martos

M. P.

Extremera

(2020). A meta-analysis of the relationship between emotional intelligence and academic performance in secondary education: A multi-stream comparison. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 1517. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01517

84.

Sankaracharya

(1950). The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad with the commentary of Sankaracharya ( Madhavananda

Sastri

, eds.; Vol. 1, 3rd ed.). Advaita Ashram.

85.

Senawati

Suwastini

N. K. A.

Jayantini

I. G. A. S. R.

Adnyani

N. L. P. S.

Artini

N. N.

(2021). The benefits of reading aloud for children: A review in EFL context. Indonesian Journal of English Education, 1(1), 80–107. https://doi.org/10.15408/ijee.v1i1.19880

86.

Shin

(2021). Meta-analysis of the effect of yoga practice on physical fitness in the elderly. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(21), Article 11663. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182111663

87.

Silva

Farias

Mesquita

(2021). Challenges faced by preservice and novice teachers in implementing student-centred models: A systematic review. European Physical Education Review, 27(4), 798–816. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X21995216

88.

Silvervarg

Haake

Gulz

(2018). Perseverance is crucial for learning. “OK! but can i take a break?” In Rosé Penstein

(Ed.), Artificial intelligence in education. AIED 2018. Lecture notes in computer science (Vol 10947, pp. 532–544). Springer.

89.

Singh

Manjaly

J. A.

(2022). Using curiosity to improve learning outcomes in schools. Sage Open, 12(1), Article 21582440211069390. https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440211069392

90.

Sisk

V. F.

Burgoyne

A. P.

Sun

Butler

J. L.

Macnamara

B. N.

(2018). To what extent and under which circumstances are growth mind-sets important to academic achievement? Two meta-analyses. Psychological Science, 29(4), 549–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617739704

91.

(2024). Students’ self-control and self-efficacy through yoga practices and their influences on academic performance. Pacific International Journal, 7(3), 171–176. https://doi.org/10.55014/pij.v7i3.554

92.

Telles

Singh

Bhardwaj

Kumar

Balkrishna

(2013). Effect of yoga or physical exercise on physical, cognitive and emotional measures in children: A randomized controlled trial. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 7(1), Article 37. https://doi.org/10.1186/1753-2000-7-37

93.

Tsai

Lee

(2006). A study of knowledge internalization: From the perspective of learning cycle theory. Journal of Knowledge Management, 10(3), 57–71. https://doi.org/10.1108/13673270610670858

94.

Van’t Westeinde

Patel

K. D

. (2022). Heartfulness meditation: A yogic and neuroscientific perspective. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, Article 806131. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.806131

95.

Veine

Anderson

M. K.

Andersen

N. H.

Espenes

T. C.

Søyland

T. B.

Wallin

Reams

(2020). Reflection as a core student learning activity in higher education - Insights from nearly two decades of academic development. International Journal for Academic Development, 25(2), 147–161. https://doi.org/10.1080/1360144X.2019.1659797

96.

Wahlstrom

Weiss

L. G.

Saklofske

D. H.

(2016). Chapter 2 - Practical issues in WISC-V administration and scoring. In Weiss

L. G.

Saklofske

D. H.

Holdnack

J. A.

Prifitera

(Eds.), WISC-V assessment and interpretation (pp. 25–62). Academic Press.

97.

Washburne

J. N.

(1936). The definition of learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 27(8), 603–611. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0060154

98.

Waters

Barsky

Ridd

Allen

(2015). Contemplative education: A systematic, evidence-based review of the effect of meditation interventions in schools. Educational Psychology Review, 27(1), 103–134. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-014-9258-2

99.

Wechsler

Kodama

(1949). Wechsler intelligence scale for children (Vol. 1). Psychological Corporation New York.

100.

Wipawayangkool

Teng

J. T. C.

(2016). Assessing tacit knowledge and sharing intention: A knowledge internalization perspective. Knowledge and Process Management, 23(3), 194–206. https://doi.org/10.1002/kpm.1505

101.

Wong

I. H. M.

Wong

T. T. Y.

(2021). Exploring the relationship between intellectual humility and academic performance among post-secondary students: The mediating roles of learning motivation and receptivity to feedback. Learning and Individual Differences, 88, Article 102012. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2021.102012

102.

Wood

S. G.

Moxley

J. H.

Tighe

E. L.

Wagner

R. K.

(2018). Does use of text-to-speech and related read-aloud tools improve reading comprehension for students with reading disabilities? A meta-analysis. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 51(1), 73–84. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022219416688170

103.

Barquero

L. A.

Pickren

S. E.

Taboada Barber

Cutting

L. E.

(2020). The relationship between cognitive skills and reading comprehension of narrative and expository texts: A longitudinal study from Grade 1 to Grade 4. Learning and Individual Differences, 80, Article 101848. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2020.101848

104.

Yuan

(2022). Evidence of the spacing effect and influences on perceptions of learning and science curricula. Cureus, 14(1), Article e21201. https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.21201

105.

Zalouli

Rajavand

Bayat

Khaleghnia

Sharifianjazi

Jafarinazhad

Beheshtizadeh

(2023). Adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN) controls central nervous system and promotes peripheral nervous system regeneration via physical exercise. Biomedicine & Pharmacotherapy, 165, Article 115078. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115078

106.

Zhang

Jia

Yang

Zhang

Wang

(2023). Effects of exercise interventions on cognitive functions in healthy populations: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Ageing Research Reviews, 92, Article 102116. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.arr.2023.102116

107.

Zhao

Yang

Xing

(2025). The chain mediating role of interest and physical activity level in the PE teacher autonomy support to primary students’ physical and mental health. Scientific Reports, 15(1), Article 37070. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-025-21118-y

108.

Zimmerman

B. J.

Bandura

Martinez-Pons

(1992). Self-motivation for academic attainment: The role of self-efficacy beliefs and personal goal setting. American Educational Research Journal, 29(3), 663–676. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312029003663

109.

Zmigrod

Rentfrow

P. J.

Robbins

T. W.

(2019). The psychological roots of intellectual humility: The role of intelligence and cognitive flexibility. Personality and Individual Differences, 141, 200–208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2019.01.016

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.03 MB