Subjective versus objective language proficiency measures in the investigation of bilingual effects on cognitive control

Anderson J. A. E. Mak L. Keyvani Chahi A. Bialystok E. (2018). The language and social background questionnaire: Assessing degree of bilingualism in a diverse population. Behavior Research Methods, 50(1), 250–263. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-017-0867-9

Anderson P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology, 8(2), 71–82. https://doi.org/10.1076/chin.8.2.71.8724

Anthony J. J. R. Blumenfeld H. K. (2019). Language dominance predicts cognate effects and inhibitory control in young adult bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 22(5), 1068–1084. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918001013

Antón E. Carreiras M. Duñabeitia J. A. (2019). The impact of bilingualism on executive functions and working memory in young adults. PLOS ONE, 14(2), Article e0206770. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0206770

Antoniou M. (2019). The advantages of bilingualism debate. Annual Review of Linguistics, 5(1), 395–415. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-011718-011820

Anwyl-Irvine A. L. Massonnié J. Flitton A. Kirkham N. Evershed J. K. (2020). Gorilla in our midst: An online behavioral experiment builder. Behavior Research Methods, 52(1), 388–407. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13428-019-01237-x

Baayen R. H. Milin P. (2010). Analyzing reaction times. International Journal of Psychological Research, 3(2), 12–28. https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.807

Barr D. J. Levy R. Scheepers C. Tily H. J. (2013). Random effects structure for confirmatory hypothesis testing: Keep it maximal. Journal of Memory and Language, 68(3), 255–278. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2012.11.001

Bates D. Kliegl R. Vasishth S. Baayen H. (2015). Parsimonious mixed models. arXiv. arXiv:1506.04967.https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.1506.04967

Bialystok E. (2016). The signal and the noise. Linguistic Approaches to Bilingualism, 6(5), 517–534. https://doi.org/10.1075/lab.15040.bia

Bialystok E. Craik F. I. M. (2022). How does bilingualism modify cognitive function? Attention to the mechanism. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 29(4), 1246–1269. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-022-02057-5

Bialystok E. Craik F. I. M. Green D. W. Gollan T. H. (2009). Bilingual minds. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 10(3), 89–129. https://www-jstor-org-443.web.bisu.edu.cn/stable/41038805

Bialystok E. Craik F. I. M. Klein R. Viswanathan M. (2004). Bilingualism, aging, and cognitive control: Evidence from the Simon task. Psychology and Aging, 19(2), 290–303. https://doi.org/10.1037/0882-7974.19.2.290

Bialystok E. Martin M. M. (2004). Attention and inhibition in bilingual children: Evidence from the dimensional change card sort task. Developmental Science, 7(3), 325–339. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2004.00351.x

Bidelman G. M. Gandour J. T. Krishnan A. (2011). Cross-domain effects of music and language experience on the representation of pitch in the human auditory brainstem. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(2), 425–434. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918001153

Brysbaert M. Stevens M. (2018). Power analysis and effect size in mixed effects models: A tutorial. Journal of Cognition, 1(1), Article 9. https://doi.org/10.5334/joc.10

Champoux-Larsson M. F. Dylman A. S. (2021). Different measurements of bilingualism and their effect on performance on a Simon task. Applied Psycholinguistics, 42(2), 505–526. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716420000661

Cieślicka A. B. Guerrero B. L. (2023). Emotion word processing in immersed Spanish-English/English-Spanish bilinguals: An ERP study. Languages, 8(1), 42. https://doi.org/10.3390/languages8010042

Cohen S. (1988). Perceived stress in a probability sample of the United States. In Marelich W. D. Erger J. S. (Eds.), The social psychology of health. (pp. 31–67). Sage.

Costa A. Hernández M. Sebastián-Gallés N. (2008). Bilingualism aids conflict resolution: Evidence from the ANT task. Cognition, 106(1), 59–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.COGNITION.2006.12.013

Craney T. A. Surles J. G. (2002). Model-dependent variance inflation factor cutoff values. Quality Engineering, 14(3), 391–403. https://doi.org/10.1081/QEN-120001878

Dash T. Berroir P. Joanette Y. Ansaldo A. I. (2019). Alerting, orienting, and executive control: The effect of bilingualism and age on the subcomponents of attention. Frontiers in Neurology, 10, Article 1122. https://doi.org/10.3389/fneur.2019.01122

Dash T. Joanette Y. Ansaldo A. I. (2022). Exploring attention in the bilingualism continuum: A resting-state functional connectivity study. Brain and Language, 224, 105048. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bandl.2021.105048

Davey G. de Lian C. Higgins L. (2007). The university entrance examination system in China. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 31(4), 385–396. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098770701625761

De Bruin A. Treccani B. della Sala S . (2015). Cognitive advantage in bilingualism. Psychological Science, 26(1), 99–107. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797614557866

Diamond A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135–168. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750

Dunn L. M. Dunn D. M. (2007). PPVT-4: Peabody picture vocabulary test. Pearson Assessments.

Freeman M. R. Robinson Anthony J. J. Marian V. Blumenfeld H. K. (2022). Individual and sociolinguistic differences in language background predict Stroop performance. Frontiers in Communication, 7, Article 105.

Friedman N. P. Miyake A. (2017). Unity and diversity of executive functions: Individual differences as a window on cognitive structure. Cortex, 86, 186–204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2016.04.023

Gollan T. H. Salmon D. P. Montoya R. I. Galasko D. R. (2011). Degree of bilingualism predicts age of diagnosis of Alzheimer’s disease in low-education but not in highly educated Hispanics. Neuropsychologia, 49(14), 3826–3830. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NEUROPSYCHOLOGIA.2011.09.041

Gollan T. H. Weissberger G. H. Runnqvist E. Montoya R. I. Cera C. M. (2012). Self-ratings of spoken language dominance: A Multilingual Naming Test (MINT) and preliminary norms for young and aging Spanish–English bilinguals. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 15(3), 594–615. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728911000332

Gollan T. H. Montoya R. I. Fennema-Notestine C. Morris S. K. (2005). Bilingualism affects picture naming but not picture classification. Memory & Cognition, 33(7), 1220–1234. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03193224

Grant A. Li P. (2019). Proficiency affects intra-and inter-regional patterns of language control in second language processing. Language, Cognition and Neuroscience, 34(6), 787–802. https://doi.org/10.1080/23273798.2019.1582788

Green D. W. (1998). Mental control of the bilingual Lexico-semantic system. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1(2), 67–81. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728998000133

Green D. W. Abutalebi J. (2008). Understanding the link between bilingual aphasia and language control. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 21(6), 558–576. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JNEUROLING.2008.01.002

Grosjean F. (1998). Studying bilinguals: Methodological and conceptual issues. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 1(2), 131–149. https://doi.org/10.1017/S136672899800025X

Grosjean F. (2020). The bilingual’s language modes 1. In Wei L. (Ed.), The bilingualism reader (pp. 428–449). Routledge.

Grundy J. G. (2020). The effects of bilingualism on executive functions: An updated quantitative analysis. Journal of Cultural Cognitive Science, 4, 177–199.

Grundy J. G. Pavlenko E. Bialystok E. (2020). Bilingualism modifies disengagement of attention networks across the scalp: A multivariate ERP investigation of the IOR paradigm. Journal of Neurolinguistics, 56, 100933. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.JNEUROLING.2020.100933

Gullifer J. W. Kousaie S. Gilbert A. C. Grant A. Giroud N. Coulter K. . . .Titone D. (2021). Bilingual language experience as a multidimensional spectrum: Associations with objective and subjective language proficiency. Applied Psycholinguistics, 42(2), 245–278. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716420000521

Herbert R. Hickin J. Howard D. Osborne F. Best W. (2008). Do picture-naming tests provide a valid assessment of lexical retrieval in conversation in aphasia? Aphasiology, 22(2), 184–203. https://doi.org/10.1080/02687030701262613

Iluz-Cohen P. Armon-Lotem S. (2013). Language proficiency and executive control in bilingual children. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 16(4), 884–899. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728912000788

Kaplan E. Goodglass H. Weintraub S. (2001). Boston naming test. https://doi.org/10.1037/t27208-000

Lehtonen M. Soveri A. Laine A. Järvenpää J. De Bruin A. Antfolk J. (2018). Is bilingualism associated with enhanced executive functioning in adults? A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 144(4), 394–425.

Li P. Zhang F. Yu A. Zhao X. (2020). Language History Questionnaire (LHQ3): An enhanced tool for assessing multilingual experience. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 23(5), 938–944. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918001153

Lien H.-Y. (2016). Effects of EFL individual learner variables on foreign language reading anxiety and metacognitive reading strategy use. Psychological Reports, 119(1), 124–135. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033294116659711

Liu M. (2006). Anxiety in Chinese EFL students at different proficiency levels. System, 34(3), 301–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SYSTEM.2006.04.004

Luk G. Bialystok E. (2013). Bilingualism is not a categorical variable: Interaction between language proficiency and usage. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 25(5), 605–621. https://doi.org/10.1080/20445911.2013.795574

MacIntyre P. D. Noels K. A. Clément R. (1997). Biases in self-ratings of second language proficiency: The role of language anxiety. Language Learning, 47(2), 265–287. https://doi.org/10.1111/0023-8333.81997008

Mann A. De Bruin A. (2022). Bilingual language use is context dependent: Using the Language and Social Background Questionnaire to assess language experiences and test-rest reliability. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(8), 2886–2901. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2021.1988049

Marian V. Blumenfeld H. K. Kaushanskaya M. (2007). The Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire (LEAP-Q): Assessing language profiles in bilinguals and multilinguals. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50(4), 940–967. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2007/067)

Martin A. J. Yu K. Hau K.-T. (2014). Motivation and engagement in the “Asian Century”: A comparison of Chinese students in Australia, Hong Kong, and Mainland China. Educational Psychology, 34(4), 417–439. https://doi.org/10.1080/01443410.2013.814199

Mishra R. K. (2015). Let’s not forget about language proficiency and cultural variations while linking bilingualism to executive control. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 18(1), 39–40. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728914000455

Mishra R. K. Singh N. Pandey A. Huettig F. (2012). Spoken language-mediated anticipatory eye movements are modulated by reading ability: Evidence from Indian low and high literates. Journal of Eye Movement Research, 5(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.16910/jemr.5.1.3

Miyake A. Friedman N. P. Emerson M. J. Witzki A. H. Howerter A. Wager T. D. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex “frontal lobe” tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49–100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734

Momenian M. Bakhtiar M. Chan Y. K. Cheung S. L. Weekes B. S. (2021). Picture naming in bilingual and monolingual Chinese speakers: Capturing similarity and variability. Behavior Research Methods, 53, 1677–1688.

Momenian M. Privitera A. J. Weekes B. (2024). Nouns are not always processed faster than verbs in bilingual speakers: Effects of language distance. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 27(1), 75–83.

Morton J. B. Harper S. N. (2007). What did Simon say? Revisiting the bilingual advantage. Developmental Science, 10(6), 719–726. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2007.00623.x

Paap K. R. (2018). No coherent evidence for bilingual advantages in executive functioning. CogSci.

Paap K. R. (2019). The bilingual advantage debate: Quantity and quality of the evidence. In Schwieter J. W. Paradis M. (Eds.), The handbook of the neuroscience of multilingualism (pp. 701–735). Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119387725.ch34

Paap K. R. Johnson H. A. Sawi O. (2015). Bilingual advantages in executive functioning either do not exist or are restricted to very specific and undetermined circumstances. Cortex, 69, 265–278.

Pan L. Block D. (2011). English as a “global language” in China: An investigation into learners’ and teachers’ language beliefs. System, 39(3), 391–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.SYSTEM.2011.07.011

Privitera A. J. (2023). Is there a foreign language effect on academic integrity? Higher Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-023-01134-5

Privitera A. J. Momenian M. Weekes B. (2022). Task-specific bilingual effects in Mandarin-English speaking high school students in China. Current Research in Behavioral Sciences, 3, 100066. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.CRBEHA.2022.100066

Privitera A. J. Momenian M. Weekes B. S. (2023a). Graded bilingual effects on attentional network function in Chinese high school students. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 26(3), 527–537. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728922000803

Privitera A. J. Momenian M. Weekes B. S. (2023b). Modeling the bilingual advantage: Do results differ between analysis methods? Ampersand, 11, 100134.

Privitera A. J. Weekes B. S. (2023). Scoping review of research practices in the investigation of bilingual effects on inhibition and attention in young people. International Journal of Bilingualism, 27(5), 749–775. https://doi.org/10.1177/13670069221121498

R Core Team. (2021). R: A language and environment for statistical computing. In Vienna, Austria.

Rossion B. Pourtois G. (2001). Revisiting Snodgrass and Vanderwart’s object database: Color and texture improve object recognition. Journal of Vision, 1(3), 413–413. https://doi.org/10.1167/1.3.413

Rothman J. Bayram F. DeLuca V. Di Pisa G. Dunabeitia J. A. Gharibi K. . . .Wulff S. (2023). Monolingual comparative normativity in bilingualism research is out of “control”: Arguments and alternatives. Applied Psycholinguistics, 44(3), 316–329. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0142716422000315

Salili F. Hau K. (1994). The effect of teachers’ evaluative feedback on Chinese students’ perception of ability: A cultural and situational analysis. Educational Studies, 20(2), 223–236. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305569940200206

Sheng L. Lu Y. Gollan T. H. (2014). Assessing language dominance in Mandarin–English bilinguals: Convergence and divergence between subjective and objective measures. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 17(2), 364–383. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728913000424

Sheppard C. Kousaie S. Monetta L. Taler V. (2016). Performance on the Boston Naming Test in bilinguals. Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society, 22(3), 350–363. https://doi.org/10.1017/S135561771500123X

Simon J. R. Wolf J. D. (1963). Choice reaction time as a function of angular stimulus-response correspondence and age. Ergonomics, 6(1), 99–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140136308930679

Sun J. Dunne M. P. Hou X. Xu A. (2013). Educational stress among Chinese adolescents: Individual, family, school and peer influences. Educational Review, 65(3), 284–302. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2012.659657

Surrain S. Luk G. (2019). Describing bilinguals: A systematic review of labels and descriptions used in the literature between 2005–2015. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 22(2), 401–415. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728917000682

Tao L. Wang G. Zhu M. Cai Q. (2021). Bilingualism and domain-general cognitive functions from a neural perspective: A systematic review. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 125, 264–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/J.NEUBIOREV.2021.02.029

Tomoschuk B. Ferreira V. S. Gollan T. H. (2019). When a seven is not a seven: Self-ratings of bilingual language proficiency differ between and within language populations. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 22(3), 516–536. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728918000421

Van den Noort M. Vermeire K. Bosch P. Staudte H. Krajenbrink T. Jaswetz L. . . . Lim S . (2019). A systematic review on the possible relationship between bilingualism, cognitive decline, and the onset of dementia. Behavioral Sciences, 9(7), 81. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs9070081

Wang L. Byram M. (2011). ‘But when you are doing your exams it is the same as in China’—Chinese students adjusting to western approaches to teaching and learning. Cambridge Journal of Education, 41(4), 407–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764X.2011.625001

Ware A. T. Kirkovski M. Lum J. A. (2020). Meta-analysis reveals a bilingual advantage that is dependent on task and age. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 1458. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01458

Wermelinger S. Gampe A. Daum M. M. (2017). Bilingual toddlers have advanced abilities to repair communication failure. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 155, 84–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2016.11.005

Whitcomb D. Battaly H. Baehr J. Howard-Snyder D. (2017). Intellectual humility: Owning our limitations. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 94(3), 509–539. https://doi.org/10.1111/phpr.12228

Xie Z. (2018). The influence of second language (L2) proficiency on cognitive control among young adult unbalanced Chinese-English bilinguals. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, Article 412. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00412

Xie Z. Zhou S. (2020). Bilingualism, demographics, and cognitive control: A within-group approach. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, Article 94. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00094

Zahodne L. B. Schofield P. W. Farrell M. T. Stern Y. Manly J. J. (2014). Bilingualism does not alter cognitive decline or dementia risk among Spanish-speaking immigrants. Neuropsychology, 28(2), 238–246. https://doi.org/10.1037/neu0000014

Zell E. Krizan Z. (2014). Do people have insight into their abilities? A metasynthesis. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 9(2), 111–125. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691613518075

Zhou B. Krott A. (2016). Data trimming procedure can eliminate bilingual cognitive advantage. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 23(4), 1221–1230. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13423-015-0981-6