Previous research has suggested that there is a cost in switching between language in a lexical decision task. This paper reports two studies exploring its basis. Experiment 1 confirmed such a cost in a lexical decision task in which the target language for a trial is specified. German-English bilinguals were slower on switch trials compared to nonswitch trials. Experiment 2 changed the task to one in which a word response could be given independent of language. In this case, there was still a cost of switching between languages but it was much reduced. We propose that in bilingual lexical decision a cost arises because of the process of testing the output of the lexico-semantic system. Different lexical decision tasks induce different output tests. We also outline a mechanism that could give rise to these effects based on the notion of competition between language schemas.
ALLPORT, A., STYLES, E. A., & HSIEH, S., (1994). Shifting intentional set: exploring the dynamic control of tasks. In C. Umilta & M. Moscovitch (Eds.)., Attention and Performance XV. (pp. 421–452). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
2.
ALBERT, M. L., & OBLER, L. K., (1978). The Bilingual Brain: Neuropsychological and Neurolinguistic Aspects of Bilingualism. New York: Academic Press.
3.
ALTENBERG, E., & CAIRNS, H., (1983). The effects of phonotactic constraints in lexical processing in bilingual and monolingual subjects. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 22, 174–188.
4.
BIEDERMAN, I., (1972). Human performance in contingent information processing tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 93, 219–239.
5.
CHAN, M.-C., CHAU, H. L. H., & HOOSAIN, R., (1983). Input/output switch in bilingual code switching. Journal of psycholinguistic Research, 12, 115–134.
6.
CHEN, H.-C., & NG, M.-L., (1989). Semantic facilitation and translation priming effects in Chinese-English bilinguals. Memory and Cognition, 17, 454–462.
7.
DALRYMPLE-ALFORD, E. C., (1985). Language switching during bilingual reading. British Journal of Psychology, 76, 111–122.
8.
DIJKSTRA, T., & van HEUVEN, W. J. B. (in press)., The BIA-model and bilingual word recognition. In J. Grainger & A. Jacobs (Eds.), Localist Connectionist Approaches to Human Cognition. Hove: LEA.
9.
ELLIS, N. C., (1994). Vocabulary acquisition: how implicit, how explicit? In N. Ellis (Ed.)., Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. London: Academic Press.
10.
FOX, E., (1996). Cross-language priming for ignored words: evidence for a common representational system in bilinguals. Journal of Memory and Language, 35, 353–370.
11.
GRAINGER, J., & BEAUVILLAIN, C., (1987). Language blocking and lexical access in bilinguals. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 39A, 295–319.
12.
GRAINGER, J., & DIJKSTRA, T., (1992). On the representation and use of language information in bilinguals. In R. J. Harris (Ed.), Cognitive Processing in Bilinguals (pp. 207–220). Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers BV.
13.
GRAINGER, J., & JACOBS, A. M., (1996). Orthographic processing in visual word recognition: A multiple read-out model. Psychological Review, 103, 518–565.
14.
GREEN, D. W., (1986). Control, activation and resource. Brain & Language, 27, 210–223.
15.
GREEN, D. W., (1993). Towards a model of L2 comprehension and production. In R. Schreuder & B. Weltens (Eds.), The Bilingual Lexicon. (pp. 249–277). Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.
16.
GREEN, D. W., (1995). The control of resources in bilingual speakers. Tennet VI Theoretical and Experimental Neuropsychology, Montreal. Abstract: Brain & Cognition, 30, 264.
17.
GREEN, D. W., (1996). Regulating the bilingual lexico-semantic system. Manuscript in preparation.
18.
GREEN, D. W., & MEARA, P., (1995). Editorial. Special Guest Issue on Cognitive Aspects of Second Language Acquisition. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 8, pp 97–101.
19.
DE GROOT, A. M. B., (1984). Primed lexical decisions: Combined effects of the proportion of related prime-target pairs and the stimulus onset asynchrony of prime and target. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 36A, 253–280.
20.
DE GROOT, A. M. B., DANNENBURG, L., & VAN HELL, J. G., (1994). Forward and backward translation by bilinguals. Journal of Memory and Language, 33, 600–629.
21.
DE GROOT, A. M. B., & NAS, G. J. L., (1991). Lexical representation of cognates and non-cognates in compound bilinguals. Journal of Memory and Language, 30, 90–123.
22.
GUTTENTAG, R. E., HAITH, M. M., GOODMAN, G. S., & HAUCH, J., (1984). Semantic processing of unattended words by bilinguals: A test of the input switch mechanism. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 23, 178–188.
23.
VAN HELL, J. G., DE GROOT, A. M. B. (submitted)., Disentangling context availability and concreteness in lexical decision and word-translation. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology.
24.
JIN, Y.-S., & FISCHLER, I., (1987). Effects of concreteness on cross-language priming of lexical decision. Paper presented at the Southeastern Psychological Association Meeting, Atlanta, Georgia.
25.
KEATLEY, C. W., SPINKS, J. A., & De GELDER, B., (1994). Asymmetrical cross-language priming effects. Memory & Cognition, 22, 70–84.
26.
KERKMAN, J. P. M., (1984). Woordherkenning in twee talen (word recognition in two languages). In A.J.W.M. Thomassen, L.G.M. Noordman & P.A.T.M. Eling (Eds.), Het Leesproces (The reading process). Lisse: Swets and Zeitlinger.
27.
KIRSNER, K., SMITH, M. C., LOCKHART, R. S., KING, M. L., & JAIN, M., (1984). The bilingual lexicon: Language specific units in an integrated network. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 23, 519–539.
28.
KIRSNER, K., (1986). Lexical function: Is a bilingual account necessary? In J. Vaid (Ed.), Language processing in bilinguals: Psycholinguistic and neuropsychological perspectives. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
29.
KOLERS, P. A., (1966). Reading and talking bilingually. American Journal of Psychology, 79, 347–376.
30.
KROLL, J. F., & MERVES, J. S., (1986). Lexical access for concrete and abstract words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 33, 149–174.
31.
KUCERA, H., & FRANCIS, W. N., (1967). Computational analysis of present-day American English. Providence, Rhode Island: Brown University Press.
32.
LUKATELA, G., & TURVEY, M. T., (1994). Visual lexical access is initially phonological: I. Evidence from associative priming by words, homophones and pseudo-homophones. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 123, 107–128.
33.
MACNAMARA, J., (1967). The bilingual's linguistic performance: a psychological overview. Journal of Social Issues, 23, 58–77.
34.
MACNAMARA, J., & KUSHNIR, S. L., (1971). Linguistic independence of bilinguals: the input switch. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 10, 480–487.
35.
MEARA, P., (1994). LLEX: Lingua vocabulary tests vl.4. Centre for Applied Language Studies; Swansea, University of Wales.
36.
MEIRAN, N., (1996). Reconfiguration of processing mode prior to task performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory & Cognition, 22, 1–20.
37.
MEYER, D. E., & RUDDY, M. G., (1974). Bilingual word-recognition: organization and retrieval of alternative lexical codes. Paper presented to the Eastern Psychological Association, Philadelphia.
38.
MEYER, D. E., & SCHVANEVELDT, R. W., (1971). Facilitation in recognising pairs of words: Evidence of a dependence between retrieval operations. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 90, 227–234.
39.
MONSELL, S., (1995). Control of mental processes. In V. Bruce (Ed.), Unsolved mysteries of the mind: tutorial essays on cognition. Hove, E. Sussex: LEA.
40.
MORTON, J., (1996). How many routes in reading? In D. W. Green & others Cognitive Science: An Introduction. pp. 148–173. Oxford: Blackwell.
41.
NORMAN, D. A., & SHALLICE, T., (1986). Attention to action: willed and automatic control of behaviour. In R. J. Davidson, G. E. Schwartz & D. Shapiro (Eds.)., Consciousness & self-regulation: Vol 4 (pp. 1–18). New York: Plenum Press.
42.
PARADIS, M., (1987). The assessment of Bilingual Aphasia. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
43.
PARADIS, M., (1994). Neurolinguistic aspects of implicit and explicit memory: implications for bilingualism and SLA. In N. Ellis (Ed.), Implicit and Explicit Learning of Languages. London: Academic Press.
44.
PENFIELD, W., & ROBERTS, R., (1959). Speech and brain mechanisms. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
45.
POSNER, M., & SNYDER, C., (1975). Facilitation and inhibition in the processing of signals. In P. Rabbitt & S. Domic (Eds.), Attention and Performance V(pp. 669–683). New York: Academic Press.
46.
PRESTON, W. S., & LAMBERT, W. E., (1969). Interlingual interference in a bilingual version of the Stroop color-word task. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 8, 84–88.
47.
RHODES G., PARKIN, A., & TREMEWAN, T., (1993). Semantic priming and sensitivity in lexical decision. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 19, 154–165.
48.
ROGERS, R. D., & MONSELL, S., (1995). Costs of a predictable switch between simple cognitive tasks. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 124, 207–231.
49.
RUOFF, A., (1990). Häufigkeitswörterbuch gesprochener Sprache 2., unveränderte Auflage. Tübingen: Max Niemeyer Verlag.
50.
SCARBOROUGH, D. L., GERARD, L., & CORTESE, C., (1984). Independence of lexical access in bilingual word recognition. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour, 23, 84–99.
51.
SCHWANENFLUGEL, P. J., HARNISHFEGER, K. K. & STOWE, R. W., (1988). Context availability and lexical decisions for abstract and concrete words. Journal of Memory and Language, 27(5), 499–520.
52.
SCHWANENFLUGEL, P. J. & REY, M., (1986). Interlingual semantic facilitation: Evidence for a common representational system in the bilingual lexicon. Journal of Memory and Language, 25, 605–618.
53.
SHAFFER, L H., (1965). Choice reaction with variable S-R mapping. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 72, 541–545.
54.
SHALLICE, T., (1994). Multiple levels of control processes. In C. Umilta & M. Moscovitch (Eds.), Attention & Performance XV, (pp. 395–420). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
55.
STABLUM, F., LEONARDI, G., MAZZOLDI, M., UMILTA, C., & MORRA, S., (1994). Attention and control deficits following closed head injury. Cortex, 30, 603–618.
56.
THOMAS, M., & ALLPORT, A., (1995). The dynamic control of bilinguals' lexical representations. British Psychological Society Cognitive Section Annual Conference. Bristol, September 1995.
57.
VOTAW, M. C., (1992). A functional view of bilingual lexico-semantic organization. In R.J. Harris (Ed.), Cognitive Processing in Bilinguals. Amsterdam: Elsevier Science Publishers.
